Semenov-Tyan-Shansky believed that “the map is more important than the text, as it speaks often brighter, clearer and more concise than the best text”.

A topographic map is a special general geographic map, it is detailed and large-scale, it depicts the terrain almost close to the plane. It is often a cross between a plan and a map. Plan signs are used, but with a geographic grid. At school, this topic is studied only in the 6th grade in the "Plan and Map" section.

By the 11th grade, students forget all the basics of this topic, and in extra classes I pay special attention to repeating what I learned earlier. And preparing for the exam often resembles the study of new material.

Using this map, we will look at and solve several types of tasks.

First, consider the scale. All 3 types are presented here:

- Numerical 1:10.000 - this means that 1 cm on a plan or map is 10.000 cm in reality. This scale is inconvenient for real calculations.

- Named in 1 cm 100 m- we will use this scale when calculating distances along a straight line (along a ruler).

- On the right is a linear scale - we will use this scale when calculating distances along a curve (using a compass with two needles). For example, the bend length p. Belichka on the map.

Problem number 1. Find the distance from point A to point B.

1. Take a ruler and measure the distance in a straight line from A to B - 10 cm.

2. By the named scale, we know that 1 cm on the map is 100 m in reality. This means that to find the distance you need 100 m * by 10 cm = 1000 m or 1 km. Answer: 1 km.

There may be tasks to transfer from one scale to another and vice versa. For example: convert the numerical scale 1: 50.000.000 to the named one. How many zeros should we remove? in 1 m 1 00 cm is 2 zeros + in 1 km 1 000 m is 3 zeros, in total you need to remove 5 zeros.

Answer: 500 km in 1 cm.

Secondly, tasks for determining the azimuth, forward and backward. To accomplish these tasks, you need a protractor. He, too, like the ruler, can be taken for the exam and for the exam.

The main thing to remember is that the protractor should not be applied horizontally, but vertically: in the north-south direction. And the center is the point from which we find the azimuth.

Problem number 2. Determine the azimuth on the map along which you need to go from point B to an altitude point of 32 m.

Answer: 42 degrees.

The reverse azimuth is found as follows: 360 - 42 = 318 * (i.e. from point 32 m to point B).

Problem number 3. Determine the azimuth on the map, along which you need to go from point B to an altitude point of 27 m.

Answer: Here we must remember that it is determined in a circle clockwise from the north. This means that 180 degrees is already there. Plus another 100 degrees. Total - 280 *.

Third, the tasks for determining the signs of the plan.

For example: Determine match:

Answer: A-2, B-4, B-1, G-3. Almost all signs of the plan and topographic map can be found in the atlas of the 6th grade.

But there are a number of signs that are not in the atlas, but are on the exam:

1. There is a sign on the green of the forest Pine

27 - average height of trees,

0.35 - the average thickness of the tree,

7 - average distance between trees.

2. There is a sign near the bridge

D - building material,

5 - height above water level, m.

121 - bridge length, m.

6 - bridge width, m.

15 - carrying capacity in tons.

4. The steepness of the slope (CC) - they call the angle of the slope of the slope to the horizontal plane, the greater this angle, the steeper the slope. Calculated by the formula:

where h is the height of the slope in m., d is the location of the slope (length) in m.

For example: h - 30m. d - 600m.

= 3 degrees.

5. Near the tunnel

8 - tunnel height, 12 - width, 125 - length in m.

Let me remind you the rules for drawing up a plan:

1) Know signs and other designations (for example, horizontal lines and bergstriches).

2) Land signs, including the names of settlements (they are written horizontally), are drawn in black.

3) Signs of water bodies - in blue, including the names of reservoirs (names of rivers - downstream, names of lakes - horizontally).

4) Each object has a dotted border.

5) One-story wooden buildings are tinted yellow, high-rise buildings are black. Asphalt roads are red, forest is green.

6) Almost all signs of the plan are drawn in a checkerboard pattern (the garden - with columns, swamps and salt marshes - chaotically in parallel, the ravine - along the border of the slope).

7) The most important thing is to orient the plan in relation to the north.

North is top of the plan, south is bottom, right side is east, left is west. But there can be tasks for filling: a certain part of the map was turned in any other direction and the task is as follows: to determine the sides of the horizon. Here you need to be guided by the meridians (all are connected at the North Pole), and parallels (they are directed from west to east).

Fourth, the USE uses topographic maps for a variety of logical problems. I will give as an example some tasks from the past years.

Task 1: Evaluate which of the areas marked on the map with numbers 1, 2 and 3 is most suitable for setting up a training football field for the school team. Give at least two reasons to support your answer.

Answer: Site number 2 is suitable for these purposes. Because it is flat. No. 1 is not suitable because it is swampy. No. 3 is also not suitable because there are ravines on it.

Task 2: Evaluate which of the sites marked on the map with numbers 1 and 2 is better to choose for the construction of a wind power plant intended for emergency power supply of a school in the village of Verkhnee. Justify your choice.

Answer: Site No. 2 is more suitable for the construction of a wind power plant. Firstly, because it is at a higher level (site No. 2 at a height of 32 m, and No. 1 - 25 m. Secondly, from site No. 1 it is necessary to pull the power line (LEP) through the swamp and the river. Thirdly, the site number 2 is closer to the school.

Problem No. 3. For the construction of a well with a wind turbine, intended for water supply to the village of Novy, sites are proposed, indicated on the map by numbers 1 and 2.

Determine the benefits of Site 2 if the aquifers in both sites are known to be at the same depth.

Answer: Firstly, the wind turbine must be installed at a considerable height - site 2 is higher than site 1. Secondly, site 1 is located in a swamp. Thirdly, site 2 is closer than site 1, which means that the length of the pipes for supplying water is shorter.

Answer: Plot number 1 is suitable for the construction of a new recreation center. Firstly, the area is smoother. Secondly, this site is next to the road, which means there will be a convenient access to it throughout the year. And another site is located next to the lake. This is also very important for the recreation center. Plot number 2, although it is located next to the river, but the territory is swampy.

Problem number 5.

Answer: Plot number 3 is the most suitable for training. Section 1 is too shallow, and it will take a long time to get from the road to it. Plot number 2 is ravine and is located near the river. And this is dangerous. Plot number 3 has a slope and is located next to the road.

Finally, the most difficult job of a topographic map is building a profile.

I will pay maximum attention to this work, since this topic is not studied at all in geography programs. There are even illustrations of the profiles of the continents in the atlases for grade 7, but there is not a word about this in textbooks.

Appendix 1. Task No. 1. Build the profile of the terrain along the line A - B.

Appendix 2. Task number 2. Build the profile of the terrain along the line A - B. To do this

With the help of a topographic map, you can solve a lot of practical problems without leaving the area. According to the topographic map, you can determine: the scale of this map, the distance between any local objects, the size of any area, the steepness of the slopes, the heights of any points in the terrain, the mutual excess of points, the visibility of points, the number of trees in the forest, the amount of water in the river, and much more.

Typically, each topographic map is given a linear, numerical and textual scale. But what if, for one reason or another, it was not there? An experienced specialist in the appearance of a topographic map can immediately name its scale. If you cannot do this, then you should resort to the following methods.

Determination of the scale of the topographic map on the kilometer grid.

Its side corresponds to a certain number of centimeters. If this distance is 2 cm, then the scale of the 1 cm map is 500 meters, that is, 1: 50,000. If 4 cm, then the scale of the map will accordingly be 1: 25,000.

Determination of the scale of the topographic map along the length of the meridian arc.

In order to use this method, one must firmly remember that one minute along the meridian is approximately 2 km (more precisely 1.85). The degrees and minutes are labeled on the map, and in addition, each minute is marked with a checkerboard. So, for example, in the picture below, the length of one minute is approximately 4 cm. This means that the scale of this map will be 1:50 000.

It is a device for measuring the length of curved lines. The base of the curvimeter is a wheel, the circumference of which is known. The rotation of the wheel is transferred to the arrow turning on a circular scale. Knowing the number of revolutions of the wheel rolling along the measured line, it is easy to determine its length.

How to measure area from a topographic map.

Measuring area in a geometric way.

The measured area is divided into a network of triangles, squares, trapeziums, the areas of which are calculated using well-known formulas. The sum of the areas of the known figures will give the total area enclosed in the outline.

Measuring area using a grid of squares.

It is very convenient to determine the area using a millimeter grid, which is applied to transparent paper or film. Such a grid is applied to the outline of the map and the number of square millimeters is counted. Knowing what is 1 mm2 of a topographic map on the ground (for a scale of 1: 100,000 - 1 mm2 is equal to a hectare, that is, 100 X 100 m), it is easy to determine the area on the map.

The distance between the contours, the so-called inception, shows the steepness of the slope. The main methods for determining the steepness of slopes on a topographic map are as follows.

How to determine the steepness of the slopes on the scale of the topographic map.

Usually, to determine the steepness of the slopes, a drawing is placed in the fields of a topographic map - a scale of laying. Along the lower base of this scale, numbers are indicated that indicate the steepness of the slopes in degrees. On the perpendiculars to the base, the corresponding values ​​of the foundations are plotted on the map scale.

On the left, the scale is plotted for the main section height, on the right, for a fivefold section height. To determine the steepness of the slope, for example, between points a-c, it is necessary to take this distance with a compass and put it on the scale of laying and read the steepness of the slope - 3.5 degrees.

If it is required to determine the steepness of the slope between the thickened n-m horizontals, then this distance must be postponed on the right scale and the steepness of the slope in this case will be equal to 10 degrees.

How to determine the steepness of the slopes by calculation.

Having measured the location d on the map and knowing the height of the section h, the steepness of the slope a can be determined by the formula: a = h / d. Where a is the steepness of the slope in degrees, d is the distance between two adjacent contours in millimeters.

How to determine the steepness of the slopes using a ruler or by eye.

On Soviet maps, the standard section height for each scale is set such that a 1 cm slope corresponds to a steepness of about 1 degree. From the above formula, it can be seen that how many times the laying is less than one centimeter, how many times the steepness of the slope is more than one degree. It follows that a slope of 10 degrees corresponds to a 1 mm position, a 2 mm angle corresponds to 5 degrees, a 5 mm position corresponds to 2 degrees, and so on.

Based on the book "Map and Compass - My Friends".
Klimenko A.I.

Measuring distances on the map. Study of a site. Reading the map along the route

Study of a site

By the relief and local objects depicted on the map, one can judge the suitability of a given area for organizing and conducting a battle, for the use of military equipment in battle, for observation conditions, firing, orientation, camouflage, and also for maneuverability.

The presence on the map of a large number of settlements and individual forest tracts, cliffs and gullies, lakes, rivers and streams indicates the roughness of the terrain and a limited view, which will impede the movement of military and transport equipment off the roads, create difficulties in organizing observation. At the same time, the rugged nature of the relief creates good conditions for sheltering and protecting subunits from the effects of weapons of mass destruction of the enemy, and forest tracts can be used to camouflage subunit personnel, military equipment, etc.

By the nature of the layout, size and font of the signature of settlements, it can be said that some settlements belong to cities, others - to urban-type settlements, and still others - to rural-type settlements. The orange color of the neighborhoods indicates the predominance of fire-resistant buildings. Closely spaced black rectangles within the quarters indicate the dense nature of the buildings, and the yellow fill - the non-fire resistance of the buildings.

In a settlement, there may be a weather station, a power station, a radio mast, a fuel warehouse, a plant with a pipe, a railway station, a flour mill and other facilities. Some of these local items can serve as good landmarks.

A comparatively developed network of roads of various classes can be depicted on the map. If there is a signature on the conventional road sign, for example, 10 (14) B. This means that the covered part of the road is 10 m wide, and from ditch to ditch - 14 m, the covering is cobblestone. A single-track (double-track) railway can pass through the terrain. Studying the route of movement along the railway, you can find on the map individual sections of roads that pass along an embankment or in a cut with a specified depth.

A more detailed study of roads can establish: the presence and characteristics of bridges, embankments, excavations and other structures; the presence of difficult sections, steep descents and ascents; the possibility of leaving the roads and driving next to them.

Water surfaces are depicted on maps in blue or light blue, so they stand out clearly from the conventional symbols of other local objects.

By the nature of the font of the signature of the river, one can judge its navigability. The arrow and the number on the river indicate in which direction it flows and at what speed. The signature, for example: means that the width of the river in this place is 250 m, the depth is 4.8 m, and the bottom is sandy. If there is a bridge across the river, its characteristics are given next to the image of the bridge.

If the river on the map is depicted as one line, then this indicates that the width of the river does not exceed 10 m., If the river is depicted in two lines, and its width is not indicated on the map, its width can be determined by the indicated characteristics of the bridges.

If the river is passable ford, then the conventional ford sign indicates the depth of the ford and the bottom soil.

When studying the soil and vegetation cover, you can find on the map forest areas of various sizes. Explanatory symbols on the green shading of the forest area can indicate a mixed composition of tree species, deciduous or coniferous forest. The signature, for example:, says that the average height of trees is 25 m, their thickness is 30 cm, the average distance between them is 5 m, which allows us to conclude that it is impossible for cars and tanks to move through the forest off roads.

The study of the relief on the map begins with determining the general nature of the irregularities of that part of the terrain on which the combat mission is to be performed. For example, if the map shows a hilly relief with relative heights of 100-120 m, and the distance between the contours (inception) is from 10 to 1 mm, this indicates a relatively small steepness of the slopes (from 1 to 10 °).

A detailed study of the terrain on the map is associated with solving problems of determining the heights and mutual excess of points, the type, direction of the steepness of the slopes, characteristics (depth, width and length) of hollows, ravines, gullies and other relief details.

Measuring distances on the map

Measurement from a map of straight and winding lines

To determine the distance between points of the terrain (objects, objects) on the map, using a numerical scale, you need to measure the distance between these points on the map in centimeters and multiply the resulting number by the magnitude of the scale.

For example, on a map of scale 1: 25000, measure the distance between the bridge and the windmill with a ruler; it is equal to 7.3 cm, multiply 250 m by 7.3 and get the desired distance; it is equal to 1825 meters (250x7.3 = 1825).

Determine the distance between points on the map using a ruler

The small distance between two points in a straight line is easier to determine using a linear scale. To do this, it is enough to use a compass-measuring device, the solution of which is equal to the distance between the given points on the map, to apply to a linear scale and take a reading in meters or kilometers. In the figure, the measured distance is 1070 m.

Large distances between points along straight lines are usually measured using a long ruler or a caliper.

In the first case, a numerical scale is used to determine the distance along the map using a ruler.

In the second case, the solution "step" of the measuring compass is set so that it corresponds to an integer number of kilometers, and an integer number of "steps" is laid on the segment measured on the map. A distance that does not fit into an integer number of "steps" of the measuring compass is determined using a linear scale and added to the resulting number of kilometers.

In the same way, distances are measured along winding lines. In this case, the "step" of the measuring compass should be taken 0.5 or 1 cm, depending on the length and degree of tortuosity of the measured line.

To determine the length of the route on the map, a special device called a curvimeter is used, which is especially convenient for measuring winding and long lines.

The device has a wheel, which is connected by a gear system with an arrow.

When measuring the distance with the curvimeter, set its arrow to division 99. Holding the curvimeter in a vertical position, guide it along the measured line, without lifting it from the map along the route so that the scale readings increase. Having reached the end point, count the measured distance and multiply it by the denominator of the numerical scale. (In this example 34x25000 = 850,000, or 8500 m)

Accuracy of measuring distances on the map. Corrections for distance for slope and line curvature

The accuracy of determining the distances on the map depends on the scale of the map, the nature of the measured lines (straight, winding), the chosen method of measurement, the terrain and other factors.

The most accurate way to determine the distance on the map is in a straight line.

When measuring distances using a compass-gauge or a ruler with millimeter divisions, the average value of the measurement error on flat terrain usually does not exceed 0.7-1 mm on a map scale, which is 17.5-25 m for a 1: 25000 scale map, scale 1: 50,000 - 35-50 m, scale 1: 100,000 - 70-100 m.

In mountainous areas with a large steepness of the slopes, errors will be greater. This is due to the fact that when surveying the terrain, not the length of the lines on the surface of the Earth is plotted on the map, but the length of the projections of these lines onto the plane.

For example, with a slope steepness of 20 ° and a distance of 2120 m on the ground, its projection onto the plane (distance on the map) is 2000 m, that is, 120 m less.

It is calculated that at an angle of inclination (steepness of the slope) of 20 °, the obtained result of measuring the distance on the map should be increased by 6% (add 6 m by 100 m), at an angle of inclination of 30 ° - by 15%, and at an angle of 40 ° - by 23 %.

When determining the length of the route on the map, it should be borne in mind that the distances along the roads measured on the map using a compass or curvimeter are in most cases shorter than the actual distances.

This is explained not only by the presence of descents and ascents on the roads, but also by some generalization of the meanders of the roads on the maps.

Therefore, the result of measuring the route length obtained from the map should be multiplied by the coefficient indicated in the table, taking into account the nature of the terrain and the scale of the map.

The simplest ways to measure areas on a map

An approximate estimate of the size of the areas is made by eye using the squares of the kilometer grid available on the map. Each square of a grid of maps of scales 1: 10000 - 1: 50,000 on the ground corresponds to 1 km2, a square of a grid of maps of a scale of 1: 100000 - 4 km2, a square of a grid of maps of a scale of 1: 200000 - 16 km2.

More precisely, the areas are measured with a palette, which is a sheet of transparent plastic coated with a grid of squares with a side of 10 mm (depending on the scale of the map and the required measurement accuracy).

By placing such a palette on the measured object on the map, one counts on it first the number of squares that completely fit inside the object's contour, and then the number of squares intersected by the object's contour. Each of the incomplete squares is taken as half a square. As a result of multiplying the area of ​​one square by the sum of the squares, the area of ​​the object is obtained.

On squares of scales 1: 25000 and 1: 50,000, it is convenient to measure the area of ​​small areas with an officer's ruler, which has special rectangular cutouts. The areas of these rectangles (in hectares) are indicated on the ruler for each scale of the garta.

Reading the map along the route

Reading a map means correctly and fully perceiving the symbolism of its conventional signs, quickly and accurately recognizing from them not only the type and varieties of objects depicted, but also their characteristic properties.

Studying the terrain on a map (reading a map) includes determining its general nature, quantitative and qualitative characteristics of individual elements (local objects and landforms), as well as determining the degree of influence of a given terrain on the organization and conduct of a battle.

Studying the terrain on the map, it should be remembered that since its creation, changes may have occurred on the terrain that are not reflected on the map, that is, the content of the map will in some way not correspond to the actual state of the terrain at the moment. Therefore, it is recommended to start exploring the terrain on the map by familiarizing yourself with the map itself.

Familiarization with the map. When familiarizing with the map, according to the information placed in the out-of-frame design, the scale, the height of the relief section and the time of creating the map are determined. Data on the scale and height of the relief section will allow you to establish the degree of detail of the image on this map of local objects, forms and relief details. Knowing the magnitude of the scale, you can quickly determine the size of local objects or their distance from each other.

Information about the time of creation of the map will make it possible to preliminarily determine the correspondence of the content of the map to the actual state of the area.

Then read and, if possible, memorize the values ​​of the declination of the magnetic needle, direction corrections. Knowing the direction correction from memory, you can quickly translate directional angles into magnetic azimuths or orient the map on the ground along the line of the kilometer grid.

General rules and sequence for studying the area on the map. The sequence and degree of detail in the study of the terrain is determined by the specific conditions of the combat situation, the nature of the combat mission of the subunit, as well as the seasonal conditions and tactical and technical data of the combat equipment used in the performance of the assigned combat mission. When organizing defense in a city, it is important to determine the nature of its planning and development, to identify durable buildings with basements and underground structures. In the event that the route of the movement of the unit passes through the city, there is no need to study the features of the city in such detail. When organizing an offensive in the mountains, the main objects of study are passes, mountain passes, gorges and gorges with adjacent heights, the shape of slopes and their influence on the organization of the fire system.

The study of the terrain, as a rule, begins with a determination of its general character, and then a detailed study of individual local objects, forms and details of the relief, their influence on the conditions of observation, camouflage, passability, protective properties, conditions of fire and orientation.

Determination of the general nature of the terrain is aimed at identifying the most important features of the relief and local objects that have a significant impact on the implementation of the task. When determining the general nature of the terrain on the basis of familiarization with the relief, settlements, roads, hydrographic network and vegetation cover, the variety of a given area, the degree of its ruggedness and closure, is identified, which makes it possible to preliminarily determine its tactical and protective properties.

The general nature of the terrain is determined by a quick overview of the map of the entire study area.

At first glance at the map, one can say about the presence of settlements and individual forest tracts, cliffs and gullies, lakes, rivers and streams indicating the rugged terrain and a limited view, which inevitably complicates the movement of military and transport equipment off the roads, creates difficulties in organizing observation ... At the same time, the rugged nature of the relief creates good conditions for sheltering and protecting subunits from the effects of weapons of mass destruction of the enemy, and forest tracts can be used to camouflage subunit personnel, military equipment, etc.

So, as a result of determining the general nature of the terrain, a conclusion is made about the availability of the area and its individual directions for the actions of subunits in vehicles, and also outline the lines and objects that should be studied in more detail, taking into account the nature of the combat mission to be performed in this area of ​​the terrain.
A detailed study of the terrain is aimed at determining the qualitative characteristics of local objects, forms and details of the relief within the boundaries of the unit's actions or along the upcoming route of movement. On the basis of obtaining such data from the map and taking into account the interconnection of the topographic elements of the terrain (local objects and relief), an assessment of the conditions of passability, camouflage and observation, orientation, firing is made, and the protective properties of the terrain are determined.

Determination of the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of local objects is made on the map with relatively high accuracy and great detail.

When studying on a map of settlements, the number of settlements, their type and dispersion is determined, the degree of habitation of a particular site (district) of the area is determined. The main indicators of the tactical and protective properties of settlements are their area and configuration, the nature of planning and development, the presence of underground structures, the nature of the terrain at the approaches to the settlement.

Reading the map, using the conventional signs of settlements, they establish the presence, type and location of them in a given area of ​​the terrain, determine the nature of the outskirts and layout, building density and fire resistance of buildings, the location of streets, main thoroughfares, the presence of industrial facilities, outstanding buildings and landmarks.

When studying the road network map, the degree of development of the road network and the quality of roads are specified, the conditions for the passability of a given area and the possibility of effective use of vehicles are determined.

A more detailed study of the roads establishes: the presence and characteristics of bridges, embankments, excavations and other structures; the presence of difficult sections, steep descents and ascents; the possibility of leaving the roads and driving next to them.

When studying dirt roads, special attention is paid to identifying the carrying capacity of bridges and ferry crossings, since on such roads they are often not designed for the passage of heavy wheeled and tracked vehicles.

Studying hydrography, the presence of water bodies is determined on the map, and the degree of indentedness of the terrain is specified. The presence of water bodies creates good conditions for water supply and transportation by waterways.

Water surfaces are depicted on maps in blue or light blue, so they stand out clearly from the conventional symbols of other local objects. When studying rivers, canals, streams, lakes and other water barriers on a map, the width, depth, current speed, the nature of the bottom, banks and adjacent terrain are determined; the presence and characteristics of bridges, dams, locks, ferry crossings, fords and sections convenient for crossing are established.

When studying the soil and vegetation cover, the presence and characteristics of forest and shrubs, swamps, salt marshes, sands, stony placers and those elements of soil and vegetation that can have a significant impact on the conditions of passability, camouflage, observation and the possibility of shelter are established on the map.

The characteristics of the forest area studied on the map allow us to conclude that it can be used for a secret and dispersed location of units, as well as the forest's passability along roads and clearings. Good landmarks in the forest for determining your location and orientation in motion are the forester's house and clearings.

The characteristics of the swamps are determined by the outlines of conventional symbols. However, when determining the passability of swamps on the map, one should take into account the season and weather conditions. During the period of rains and muddy roads, swamps, shown on the map with a conventional sign as passable, in reality can turn out to be difficult to pass. In winter, during severe frosts, rugged swamps can become easily passable.

The study of the relief on the map begins with determining the general nature of the irregularities of that part of the terrain on which the combat mission is to be performed. At the same time, the presence, location and interconnection of the most typical typical forms and relief details for a given site are established, their influence on the conditions of cross-country ability, observation, firing, camouflage, orientation and organization of protection against weapons of mass destruction is determined in general terms. The general nature of the relief can be quickly determined by the density and outline of contour lines, elevation marks and conventional signs of relief details.

A detailed study of the terrain on the map is associated with solving problems of determining the heights and mutual excess of points, the type and direction of the steepness of the slopes, characteristics (depth, width and length) of ravines, ravines, gullies and other relief details.

Naturally, the need for solving specific tasks will depend on the nature of the assigned combat mission. For example, the definition of invisibility fields will be required when organizing and conducting reconnaissance by observation; determination of the steepness, height and length of the slopes will be required when determining the terrain passability conditions and choosing a route of movement, etc.

In the era of the great geographical discoveries, travelers and discoverers were faced with two most important tasks: measuring distances and determining their location on the earth's surface. The Greeks had a theoretical basis for solving these problems, but they did not have sufficiently accurate instruments and maps.

Interesting fact. When Spain and Portugal decided to agree on the division of the New World into spheres of influence, they could not draw the dividing line on the map accurately enough, since at that time they did not know how to determine the longitude of a place and distance on the map. In this regard, constant disputes and conflicts arose between states.

Measuring distances using a degree network. To calculate distances on a map or globe, you can use the following values: the length of an arc of 1 ° meridian and 1 ° of the equator is approximately 111 km. For meridians, this is always true, and the length of an arc of 1 ° in parallels decreases towards the poles (the magnitude of an arc at 1 ° parallel at the equator is 111 km, at 20 ° north or south latitude - 105 km, etc.). At the poles, it is 0 (since the pole is a point). Therefore, it is necessary to know the number of kilometers corresponding to the length of 1 ° of the arc of each particular parallel. This number is written on each parallel on the hemisphere map. To determine the distance in kilometers between two points lying on the same meridian, calculate the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply the number of degrees by 111 km. To determine the distance between two points on the equator, you also need to determine the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply by 111 km.

Measuring distances using a scale. The extent of a geographic feature can also be determined using a scale. The scale of the map shows how many times the distance on the map is reduced relative to the real distance on the ground. Therefore, having drawn a straight line (if you need to know the distance in a straight line) between two points and using a ruler to measure this distance in centimeters, you should multiply the resulting number by the magnitude of the scale. For example, on a map with a scale of 1: 100,000 (in 1 cm to 1 km), the distance is 5 cm, that is, on the ground this distance is 1 × 5 = 5 (km). You can also measure the distance on the map using a compass-measuring device. In this case, it is convenient to use a linear scale.

Measuring the length of a curved line (for example, the length of a river) from a map. For measurement you can use caliper, curvimeter or thin damp thread. Suppose the measurement is carried out on a map with a scale of 1: 5,000,000 (1 cm 50 km). A small solution (2–3 mm) is given to the measuring compass in order to be able to measure the small bends of the river, and they walk along the river, counting the steps. Then, multiplying the size of the compass opening (for example, 3 mm) by the number of steps (suppose 49), find the total length of the river on the map:

3 mm × 49 = 147 mm = 14.7 cm.

Thus, the length of the river will be 50 km × 14, 7 = 735 km.

Can measure the length of the river curvimeter – a special device for measuring the lengths of curved lines on maps and plans. The curvimeter wheel is rolled along a curved line (rivers, roads, etc.), and the curvimeter counter counts the revolutions, indicating the desired line length.

You can measure the length of the curve with a damp thin thread. It is laid out along all the meanders of the river. Then, straightening the thread without strong tension, measure its length in centimeters, and the scale determines the length of the river in reality.

If the length of a river is measured using a small-scale map, the result is less than the actual length of this river. This is due to the fact that it is impossible to show all the small bends of its channel on small-scale maps. Topographic maps give more opportunity to reflect all the bends of the channel, moreover, the distortions on them are very small. Therefore, the most accurate measurement results can be obtained from topographic maps.

Odometer

When developing a route for a hike, an important criterion is its length. Depending on this, the complexity and duration of the upcoming route are calculated, the time required to complete it, the required average speed of movement, the supply of water and food is determined, the minimum permissible degree of preparedness of future participants is determined. The methods and methods of developing the route itself may be different, but everything depends on the distance that you are ready to cover in the time allotted for its passage. A lot will depend on the accuracy of your measurements and calculations, in particular, whether you will be in time for the planned return train or you will have to look for a place in the hotel or sit on the platform while waiting for the morning train.

There are many tools and methods for measuring distances on a map, but not all of them are equally applicable and convenient for accurately measuring the length of future routes along winding roads.

As a means of measuring segments on the map, you can use the usual ruler or compasses. But as you might guess, all these devices are designed to measure straight segments, and a bicycle route is rarely a set of straight lines, unless you are riding along the streets of the city. When measuring a route passing along winding roads and paths using linear tools, you will certainly face the need for additional calculations, including determining the magnitude of the error of your measurements, since a normal smooth road bend when measured with a ruler will look like a polyline consisting of many short straight lines segments. Moreover, the longer and more winding the route, the greater the error will be allowed in your measurements and the more approximate the total length of the route will be determined, especially if you use a small-scale map to plot the route.

More accurate results can be obtained when using a thread with transverse dots-divisions pre-applied to it using the same ruler, corresponding to the centimeter scale. However, in this case, the measurement accuracy will directly depend on your accuracy and patience when laying the thread on the surface of the card.

Fortunately, for a long time there has been a special uncomplicated device designed just for taking measurements on a map of both straight and winding segments called a curvimeter. Curvimeter (from Latin curvus - curve and ... meter), a device for measuring the lengths of segments of curves and winding lines on topographic plans, maps and graphic documents.

The curvimeter is manufactured with circular and rectilinear scales. Each type of curvimeter is produced in two versions: with a fixed dial and a movable hand or index; with movable dial and fixed index. To measure the length of the line, the Curvimeter wheel is rolled along this line. The distance measured by the Curvimeter in one revolution corresponds to the length of the scale of 100 cm.The measurement error of a straight line segment with a length of at least 50 cm is no more than 0.25 cm.

The mechanical curvimeter (shown in the figure) has a metric and inch scale. The metric divisions correspond to 1 cm, 0.05 inches in inches. The error in measuring a segment with a length of 50 cm does not exceed 0.5%.

Thus, when using a curvimeter, you will be able to measure the winding section of the route you need with the least cost and with the greatest accuracy. However, here you should remember a few simple rules for measuring a route using this device.

First, when measuring the total length of a route, do not try to measure all of its length from start to finish at once. It is better to measure in segments - from one important landmark to another. And the point is not at all that the length of the scale may not be enough for you. Simply, with an increase in the length of the measured segment, the degree of measurement error increases, an uncomfortable position, fatigue or trembling of the hand can also affect the measurement accuracy in a bad way.

Second, use a larger map whenever possible. In practice, a map in scale of 1: 50,000 (five hundred meters) or 1: 100,000 (kilometer distance) will do just fine. Just do not be lazy to carefully trace all the bends of the road with a curvimeter.

Thirdly, do not be too lazy to measure each segment several times. This will prevent accidental errors. If you use a conventional mechanical curvimeter, and not an electronic analogue that allows you to measure with tenths or even thousandths, determining by eye the remaining "tail" by eye, which is very important on maps with a scale of less than 1: 100,000, do not always try to round in one direction ( more or less) use at least approximate tenths.

Fourthly, in the intervals between the main landmarks, do not be too lazy to separately measure the distances to minor landmarks along the route, for example, a bridge over a channel, a crossroads, a deep ravine, etc. Thus, as mentioned above, you will be able to constantly monitor your location on the route and have an accurate idea of ​​the remaining distance to the finish line even without a GPS receiver, but only with the help of a map with marked distances to landmarks.

When plotting the measurement results on the map, it seems convenient to use a fractional record A / B., Where A is the distance from the previous landmark, and B is the distance from the starting point of the route. This method makes it easy to navigate in space without unnecessary mathematical calculations. This is relevant, for example, when you need to inform your fellow travelers, especially those who like to get ahead from the main group, the exact distance to the landmark near which you need to turn off, wait for the group, etc. In addition, if you made radial sorties on any part of the route or accidentally made an unplanned detour, for example, bypassing a blurred section of the road, you do not have to make adjustments to the pre-marked marks on the map, rewrite them or constantly keep in mind the number of "extra" kilometers, for which you will have to constantly make an amendment.

An example of measuring and plotting its results on a map:

Start (0/0) - turn right, exit from the asphalt highway onto a dirt road (3/3) - bridge over the river (2/5) - Dubki village (7/13) - Lesnoy village (14/27) - bridge over brook (5/32) - intersection with an asphalt highway (8/40) - Konechnaya railway station (10/50).

And a few words about the variety of shapes and varieties of curvimeters that are presented on the Russian market today.

As mentioned above, there are two main types of curvimeters: mechanical and electronic.

In the device of mechanical curvimeters, regardless of the specific model, there are no special fundamental differences, with the exception of the type of scale (rectilinear and circular) and the principle of displaying the measurement results (with a fixed dial and a movable hand or index; with a movable dial and a fixed index). As a rule, this is a plastic device weighing about 50 grams of rather modest size. For example, the Russian-made KU-A curvimeter shown in the figure has dimensions of 50x20x100 (in a case).

This curvimeter has been produced in our country for more than a decade unchanged, except now without the USSR quality mark, and was included in the mandatory list of items as part of the officer's tablet. It was standardized back in Soviet times and complies with TU 25-07-1039-74. The cost of this copy is about 500 rubles.

The curvimeter of the Swedish company is arranged in about the same way. Silva... However, the fixed dial has more complex markings for measurements on eight scales.

The cost of such a curvimeter is about 1000 rubles.

Another example of a Russian-made mechanical curvimeter made in the form of a key fob and additionally equipped with a compass.

The dial of the curvimeter has scales for maps of 1: 5000, 1: 20,000 and 1: 50,000. as well as a metric scale, the division of which corresponds to 1 centimeter.

Its cost is 120 rubles.

another sample with survive.som

Measurement of distance in mm., Cm., M. Miles and km.
- Measuring range: 10 m. (Actual size)
- Features: setting the scale
- Metallic wheel for measurements

Diameter 4.5cm

Length 9.7cm

Materials: plastic, steel, plastic glass.

Price RUB 215.00

In general, mechanical curvimeters have several main advantages:
- simplicity of construction and use;
- the absence of electronic circuits and other complex elements, suggests the possibility of its use in any climatic, weather and temperature conditions;
- complete non-volatility due to the lack of batteries as such;
- good impact resistance and the impossibility of disabling it as a result of water procedures.

All of the above makes a mechanical curvimeter most suitable for use in the field. The main and probably the only drawback of such a curvimeter is the need to determine tenths of the division price "by eye".

Now let's turn to the variety of electronic curvimeters. Here, the cost of one copy ranges from three hundred to five thousand rubles, depending on the complexity of the device and the number of basic and additional functions in it. As in the production of many other electronic devices, manufacturers of electronic curvimeters rarely avoid the temptation to endow it with a host of additional functions, both useful and not so much.

For example, one of the simplest electronic curvimeters of the same Swedish company Silva, entitled Silva Digital Map Measurer made in the form of a key fob, and in addition to performing the main function - measuring the distance on the map, it is additionally equipped with:

Calculator;
- mini flashlight;
- a compass.

Its cost is about> 2000 rubles.

A much more sophisticated high-precision curvimeter made in the USA called "Scal Master II", is designed to perform complex graphical measurements and calculations, has its own software, connectivity to a personal computer and has 91 architectural and engineering functions.

This device processes 50 Anglo-American values ​​(feet, inches, etc.) and 41 metric values, which allows you to work with any maps and drawings. The most commonly used type of measurement can be entered and the instrument will automatically translate scale measurements. Has the ability to save data. Has the ability to connect to a computer using the PC-Interface Kit. Compatible with Windows. Works with Excel, Lotus.

Curvimeter specifications Scale Master II:

Size: 182 x 41 x 15mm
Weight: 54g
Wheel material: one-piece polymer
Email power supply: 2 X 3 Volt - lithium
Useful life: up to 400 hours
Automatic shutdown: 5 min.
Number of buttons: 12
Operating temperatures: 0 - 55 ° С
Display size: 19 x 64 mm.

The cost of such a device + PC connection kit -> 11,000 rubles

Summarizing the information about electronic curvimeters, we can conclude that their use in the field, especially more complex analogs, is associated with some difficulties. Exposure to external influences such as cold and moisture, dependence on the presence of batteries and significantly lower shock resistance suggest the use of such a device primarily in the greenhouse conditions of urban premises for preliminary development of routes. At the same time, the indisputable advantage of the electronic curvimeter will be the maximum accuracy of measurements, and the possibility of their immediate processing, for example, converting them into kilometers, depending on the previously set scale.

Algorithm for determining directions from a topographic map.

1. On the map, mark the point at which we are, and the point to which you want to determine the direction (azimuth).

2. We connect these two points.

3. Through the point at which we are, draw a straight line: north - south.

4. Using a protractor, measure the angle between the north-south line and the direction to the desired object. The azimuth is counted from the north direction clockwise.

Algorithm for determining distances from a topographic map.

1. We measure the distance between the given points using a ruler.

2. The obtained values ​​(in cm) using the named scale are converted into distance on the ground. For example, the distance between points on the map is 10 cm, and the scale is 1 cm - 5 km. We multiply these two numbers and we get the desired result: 50 km - the distance on the ground.

3. When measuring distances, you can use a compass-gauge, but then the place of the named scale will be taken by a linear scale. In this case, our task is simplified, you can immediately determine the desired distance on the ground.

№5 1) Time zones on the territory of Russia. Local and standard time.

Solar time at points located on the same meridian is called local. Due to the fact that at every moment of the day it is different on all meridians, it is inconvenient to use them. Therefore, by international agreement, standard time has been introduced. For this, the entire surface of the Earth was divided along the meridians into 24 belts of 15 ° longitude. Zone time (the same within each zone) is the local time of the median meridian of a given zone. Zero belt is a belt, the median meridian of which is the Greenwich (zero) meridian. The same belt is 24th. From it the belts are counted to the east. Russia is located in 11 time zones: from the second (in which Moscow is located and the time of which is called Moscow) to the twelfth (islands in the Bering Strait). The time difference between these zones is 10 hours, that is, when it is midnight in Moscow, in the 12th time zone it is 10 am. The time difference between zones is equal to the difference between time zone numbers. For convenience, the 11th and 12th time zones have been combined into one. The boundaries of time zones do not pass strictly along the meridians, but coincide with the boundaries of administrative units (regions, republics) so that one administrative unit is located in the same time zone.

2) Fuel industry: composition, location of the main areas of fuel production, development problems. Fuel industry and environmental problems.

The fuel industry consists of three main industries: gas, oil and coal.

Gas industry. Russia ranks 1st in the world in terms of reserves and production of natural gas. Compared to oil and coal, gas production is cheaper, and besides, gas is the most environmentally friendly type of fuel. In the last decade, the role of gas in Russia has grown significantly.

The gas is used in thermal power plants, utilities and the chemical industry.

The main gas production area in Russia is the northern part of the West Siberian Plain (the Urengoy and Yamburg fields). Gas is produced in the Ural-Povolzhsky region (Orenburg field, in the Saratov region), in the North Caucasus, in the Pechora river basin, in some regions of Eastern Siberia, off the coast of Sakhalin and on the shelf of the Barents and Kara seas.

Gas is transported through pipelines: from Western Siberia to the European part of Russia, to the countries of Central, Eastern and Western Europe. The gas pipeline was laid along the bottom of the Black Sea to Turkey (Blue Stream project). A project is underway to build a gas pipeline to Japan (along the bottom of the Sea of ​​Japan) and to China (from the Kovylkinskoye field in Eastern Siberia).

In Russia, gas production, transportation and processing is handled by the Gazprom concern (the largest Russian monopoly). The main partners of Gazprom are the German Ruhrgas and the Ukrainian Naftagaz.

Oil industry. In terms of oil reserves, Russia is among the top five countries in the world, and in terms of production it takes 1-3rd place. Currently, oil production in Russia is declining due to the depletion of some rich fields, an increase in the cost of oil production, due to a lack of investment in geological exploration.

The main oil production area is the central part of the West Siberian Plain. Recently, the role of deposits located on the sea shelf (Caspian, Barents and Okhotsk seas) has increased. Oil was found at the bottom of the Black and Bering Seas.

Almost the entire oil industry in Russia is run by private companies (Lukoil, Tatneft, Sibneft, Yukos, etc.).

Coal industry. Coal reserves in Russia are unevenly distributed. Most are concentrated in Siberia and the Far East (Tunguska basin). At present, the main coal basin of Russia is the Kuznetsk one. This is followed by the Pechora, South Yakutsk basins and part of the Donbass. The largest active lignite basin is Kansko-Achinsky.

The environmental situation in the areas where TPPs and oil refineries are located is usually unfavorable, an example is one of the most environmentally dirty cities - Dzerzhinsk (the Moscow region), which has a high incidence rate and a low average life expectancy of the population. Oil and gas production in Western Siberia, especially in the tundra zone, causes great damage to nature.

Problems of the development of the fuel industry.

1. Increase in the cost of fuel due to the shift of the centers of oil and gas production to the regions of the Far North.

2. Depletion of reserves and lack of geological exploration and prospecting works.

3. Closure of unprofitable mines, leading to massive unemployment in this industry and an increase in social tension.

4. Deterioration of mining equipment.