In Russia, the liquidation of the consequences of local and natural disasters is handled by the federal ministry, which is abbreviated as the Ministry of Emergency Situations. It is the most important in the country. It operates in conjunction with other rapid response agencies. It includes municipal fire and rescue services. The Ministry of Emergency Situations provides unified management of emergency departments of cities, regions and the country as a whole. In total, the ministry conducts more than 25% of federal audits.
Activities of the Ministry of Emergency Situations
The Federal Service provides control over all rescue agencies of the country. Initially, municipal departments are sent to the call. If local forces failed to localize the danger, regional services come into play. Republican departments are connected only when absolutely necessary.
Rescuers of the Ministry of Emergency Situations arrive at the scene only the fourth. Local authorities such as the police, ambulance and fire departments should be the first to respond to an emergency. And only after these services establish the need to attract additional forces to eliminate the danger, the employees of the Ministry of Emergency Situations arrive. Their response time is about 4 hours.
In case of a large-scale catastrophe, aviation of the federal service is involved in its elimination. However, before calling the Ministry of Emergency Situations helicopter, it is necessary to assess the level of danger. Perhaps the accident will be able to eliminate the city services. The Ministry of Emergency Situations is called only in rare cases, when the situation gets out of control.
The ministry employs people who have undergone military training in the army and firefighters. When passing exams, rescuers check not only physical readiness and mental capacity but also psychological stability. In total, more than 7,200 people work in the Ministry of Emergency Situations, and about 150,000 employees in the fire service.
Rescue aviation
The air force of the Ministry of Emergency Situations is the pride of the whole country. Aviation of the federal service was formed in May 1995. The initiator was the Government of the Russian Federation. During its existence, aviation has justified itself many times. She has taken part in thousands of rescue missions in Russia and abroad.
The main base of the Ministry of Emergency Situations is the Ramenskoye airfield. However, aviation forces are evenly distributed across all regions of the country. To date, the ministry has more than 50 aircraft at its disposal. The aircraft fleet is represented by such aircraft as Il-62M, An-74, Yak-42D, Be-200ChS and many other multifunctional models. Also on the balance sheet are the rescue BK-117, Mi-8 and Bo-105. Ka-32s were upgraded for medical needs. Of the multi-purpose heavyweights, it is worth highlighting the Mi-26T.
Rafail Zakirov, a military pilot and engineer, is considered the father of Russian rescue aviation. It was he who stood at the origins of the development of fire extinguishing technologies for such helicopters as the Mi-26 and Ka-32. For efficiency, spillway devices of the VSU-15 series were used. Zakirov also developed a concept for dealing with oil spills. For this, the VOP-3 device was designed. Later, the engineer managed to achieve amazing results in extinguishing man-made fires. Efficiency was achieved thanks to the invention of Zakirov - the VAP-2 spillway apparatus.
Mi-8 helicopter
The helicopter is suitable for both reconnaissance and fire support for ground forces. There is the possibility of attaching anti-tank bombs.
In the 1970s, leading Japanese and German companies jointly began to develop the BK-117. Production and export were established only by the beginning of the 1980s.
The helicopter is operated by one pilot. The cargo compartment accommodates 9 people. Load capacity varies within 1700 kg. The power of both engines is 1500 hp. from.
The maximum speed reaches 250 km / h.
Chapter 2 CHARTS USED IN AVIATION
1. Purpose of cards
In aviation, maps are used both in preparation for a flight and during a flight. When preparing for a flight, the card is required in order to:
1) laying and studying the flight route;
2) measurements of track angles and distances between waypoints;
3) determining the geographical coordinates of points;
4) drawing points for the location of radio equipment that ensure the flight;
5) obtaining data on the magnetic declination of the flight area;
6) studying the terrain and determining the height of mountains and individual points of the terrain.
To an even greater extent, the map is needed in flight. In this case, it is used for the following purposes:
1) maintaining visual and radar orientation;
2) control of the path and laying the lines of the position of the aircraft;
3) determining the navigational elements of the flight.
The traffic service also needs maps to guide flights and control the correctness of their implementation.
In aviation, the map is the main aid for aircraft navigation. No flight can be carried out without it.
In the early years of aviation, ordinary topographic maps were used for aircraft navigation. They were inconvenient to use.
With the development of aviation and the means of aircraft navigation, it became necessary to issue special aviation charts that meet the requirements of aircraft navigation.
A great contribution to the development of new methods of constructing maps was made by Soviet scientists V. V. Kavraysky, F. N. Krasovsky, M. D. Solovyov, N. A. Urmaev and others.
At present, for the needs of aviation, various maps are published, which are distinguished by great accuracy and perfection of execution.
2. Plan and map
It is possible to correctly depict the surface of the Earth only on a globe, which is a reduced globe. But globes, despite this advantage, are inconvenient for practical use in aviation. On small globes it is impossible to place all the information necessary for piloting aircraft. Large globes are inconvenient to handle. Therefore, a detailed image of the earth's surface is made on a plane (usually on sheets of paper) in the form of a plan or map.
A plan is a reduced image on a plane on a large scale of a small area of the earth's surface. The plan is drawn up without taking into account the curvature of the Earth. Small areas of the earth's surface with a radius of 10-15 km can practically be taken as a plane and depict on paper all the elements of the terrain without distortion.
The plan has the following properties:
1) the absence of a degree grid of meridians and parallels;
2) equal scale in all directions;
3) great detail of the details of the terrain and the transfer of the outlines of objects without distortion.
Plans are made on a scale of 200 m in 1 cm and larger. Objects are placed on them, in the image of which more detail is needed.
Large areas of the earth's surface are depicted on the map.
A map is a conditional representation of the entire surface of the Earth or its individual parts in a reduced form on a plane, taking into account the sphericity of the Earth. As can be seen from the definition, a plan and a map are, first of all, reduced images of a particular section of the earth's surface. The reduction depends on the scale adopted for the plan or map.
3. Map scale
The scale of the map is the ratio of the length of the line taken on the map to the actual length of the same line on the ground. It shows the degree of reduction of lines on the map relative to their corresponding lines on the ground. The scale is numerical and linear.
The numerical scale is expressed as a fraction, in which the numerator is one, and the denominator is a number showing how many times the actual distances on Earth are reduced when plotted on
Rice. 2.1. Linear scale
map. For example 1: 1 000000, 1: 500 000. The smaller the denominator of the numerical scale, the larger the scale of this map will be.
Linear scale is a straight line divided into equal segments, indicated by numbers showing what distances on the ground these segments correspond (Fig. 2.1). Linear scale is a graphical expression of a numerical scale. The line segment that forms the basis of a linear scale is called basis scale. Usually, for the convenience of measurements on the map, a segment with a length of 1 cm. The distance on the ground corresponding to the base of the scale is called scale value. For example, a map scale value of 1:1000000 is 10 km.
Due to the fact that the spherical surface of the Earth cannot be depicted on a plane without distortion, the scale is not a constant value for the entire map. It is customary to distinguish between the main and private scales.
The main scale of the map called the degree of general reduction of the globe to a certain size of the globe, from which the earth's surface is transferred to a plane. The main scale makes it possible to judge the decrease in the length of the segments when they are transferred from the globe to the globe.
The scale at a given point on the map in a given direction is called private. If the main scale is taken equal to one, then the partial scales can be greater or less than one.
On aviation charts there are lines of zero distortion, where the main scale is preserved. On sheets of maps (on the southern frame) the main scale is indicated.
4. Essence of cartographic projections and their classification
The method of depicting the earth's surface on a plane is called map projection. There are many ways to depict the earth's surface on a plane.
The essence of any cartographic projection is that the surface of the globe is transferred first to a globe of a certain size, and then from the globe according to the intended method onto a plane.
When transferring the surface of the Earth from a globe to a plane, it is necessary to stretch the images in some places, and compress them in others, that is, to allow distortions. Each projection has a certain degree of distortion of lengths, directions and areas and a certain kind of grid of meridians and parallels. The choice of projection for building a map depends on what requirements the map must meet. this map. All existing projections were agreed to be subdivided according to two criteria: according to the nature of the distortions and according to the method of constructing the cartographic grid.
According to the nature of distortions, map projections are divided into the following groups:
1. Equangular. These projections have no distortion of angles and retain the semblance of small figures. In conformal projections, the angle measured on the map is equal to the angle between the same directions on the surface of the Earth. The small figures depicted on the map are similar to the corresponding figures on the ground.
Maps in conformal projections are widely used in aviation, since accurate measurement of the direction (track angle, bearing, etc.) is important for aircraft navigation.
2. Equidistant. In these projections, the distance along the meridian or along the parallel is displayed without distortion.
3. isometric. In these projections, the ratio of the area of the image of a figure on the map to the area of the same figure on the earth's surface remains constant. There is no equality of angles and similarity of figures in these projections.
4. Arbitrary. These projections do not have any of the above properties, but are needed to simplify the solution of some practical problems.
At the heart of any cartographic projection is one or another way of depicting a grid of meridians and parallels on a plane.
There are several ways to display a degree grid on a plane. In some cases, a grid of meridians and parallels is projected from the globe onto the side surface of a cylinder or cone, which is then turned onto a plane; in other cases, the projection is carried out directly onto a plane.
According to the method of constructing a grid of meridians and parallels, cartographic projections are divided into cylindrical, conical, polyconic and azimuth. Each projection group has certain properties. You can use the map correctly if you know the properties of the projection in which the map is drawn.
5. Cylindrical projections
Cylindrical projections are obtained by projecting the surface of the globe onto the side surface of a tangent or secant cylinder. Depending on the position of the axis of the cylinder relative to the axis of rotation of the Earth, cylindrical projections can be:
1) normal - the axis of the cylinder coincides with the axis of rotation of the Earth;
2) transverse - the axis of the cylinder is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the Earth;
3
) oblique - the axis of the cylinder makes some angle with the axis of rotation of the Earth.
Maps in a cylindrical projection are published in several varieties.
Normal conformal cylindrical projection has gained general distribution for compiling nautical charts. This projection is also called Mercator projection named after the Dutch cartographer who proposed it.
The construction of this projection is carried out by projecting a globe from its center onto the side surface of a cylinder tangent to the equator (Fig. 2.2). After designing, the cylinder is cut along the generatrix and unfolded onto a plane. When projected onto the surface of a cylinder, the parallels are stretched to the length of the equator. Accordingly, the meridians are stretched by the same amount. Therefore, the projection preserves the similarity of figures and is conformal.
Maps in a conformal cylindrical projection have the following main properties:
1) meridians and parallels are shown as mutually perpendicular lines;
2) the distances between the meridians are the same, and between the parallels increase with increasing latitude;
3) the equality of angles and the similarity of figures are preserved;
4) the scale is variable and becomes larger with increasing latitude, so the distance between two points is determined by a special scale printed on the side edges of the map. This scale takes into account the variable latitude scale;
5) scale distortion is practically not perceptible only in the band of ±5° from the equator;
6) the loxodrome is depicted as a straight line, which is the main advantage of this projection, which greatly facilitates the solution of navigation problems;
7) the great circle is depicted by a curved line convex towards the pole (i.e. towards a larger scale).
Navigation charts are published in normal conformal cylindrical projection.
Equiangular transverse cylindrical projection. This projection was proposed by the German mathematician Gauss, so it is usually called the Gaussian projection. The conformal transverse cylindrical projection is obtained by projecting the earth's surface onto the side surface of a cylinder located perpendicular to the earth's axis of rotation.
To build maps in this projection, the surface of the Earth is divided by meridians into 60 zones. Each such zone in longitude occupies 6°. The zones are counted east of the Greenwich meridian, which is the western border of the first zone (Fig. 2.3). In latitude, the zones extend from the North Pole to the South. Each zone is depicted on its own cylinder touching the surface of the globe along the middle meridian of the given zone. These features of the construction can reduce distortion.
Maps in a conformal transverse cylindrical projection have the following properties:
1) slight distortion of the scale; there are no length distortions on the axial meridians, and at the edges of the zones at a latitude of 0 ° do not exceed 0.14%, i.e. 140 m per 100 km measured length and practical value are not;
2) the equality of angles and the similarity of figures are preserved; on the extreme meridians of the zones, the figures are depicted on a larger scale than on the middle meridian;
3) the axial meridian of the zone and the equator are depicted by straight mutually perpendicular lines; the rest of the meridians are curved lines converging from the equator to the poles, and the parallels are arcs convex to the equator; the curvature of the meridians within one sheet of the map is imperceptible;
4) within the same zone, sheets of cards are glued together without breaks;
5) loxodrome has the form of a curve convex to the equator;
6) great circle at a distance of up to 1000 km represented by a straight line;
7) on maps of a scale of 1:200000 and larger, a kilometer
Rice. 2.3. Transverse Cylindrical Projection
grid of rectangular Gaussian coordinates.
In a conformal transverse-cylindrical projection, maps of scales 1: 500,000, 1: 200,000, 1: 100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000 and 1:10,000, i.e., all maps of a large scale, were compiled.
Oblique conformal cylindrical projection. This projection is obtained by projecting the earth's surface onto the side surface of a cylinder located at an angle to the earth's rotation axis (Fig. 2.4). The cylinder is positioned so that it touches the globe along the axis of the route. This achieves a reduction in distortion on the compiled map. On the maps in this projection in the band 500-600 km from the center line of the route, scale distortion is not
exceed 0.5%. The orthodrome in the map strip is depicted by a straight line.
In an oblique conformal cylindrical projection, route-flight maps of scales 1: 1,000,000 and 1: 2,000,000, as well as an onboard map of scale 1: 4,000,000, are published.
6. Conic projections
Conic projections are obtained by transferring the Earth's surface to the lateral surface of a cone tangent to one of the parallels or cutting the globe along two given parallels. Then the cone is cut along the generatrix and unfolded onto a plane. Conic projections depending on the location of the axis of the cone relative to the axis of rotation of the Earth can be normal, transverse and oblique. Most aviation charts are built in normal conic projection.
Conformal conic projections. Conformal conic projections can be built on a tangent or on a secant cone. The principle of constructing such a projection on a tangent cone (Fig. 2.5) is that all meridians are straightened until they come into contact with the lateral surface of the cone. In this case, all parallels, except for the tangent parallel, will be stretched to the size of the cone circumference. In order to make the projection conformal and preserve the similarity of the figures, the meridians are stretched to the extent that the parallels were stretched at a given point on the map. Then the cone is cut along the generatrix and unfolded onto a plane.
Maps in a conformal conic projection on a tangent cone have the following properties:
1) meridians are depicted as straight lines converging towards the pole;
2) the angle of convergence of the meridians
where Δλ is the difference in longitude between given meridians; φ - latitude of the touch parallel;
3) parallels have the form of arcs of concentric circles, the distances between which increase with distance from the tangent parallel;
4) there are no length distortions on the parallel of contact, and in the band of ±5° from this parallel they are insignificant and are not taken into account in practice;
5) loxodrome is depicted by a curved line with its convexity facing the equator;
6) great circle for distances up to 1200 km is depicted as a straight line, and for large distances it has the form of a curve, turned by its convexity towards a larger scale.
In a conformal conic projection on a tangent cone, side maps are published at scales 1:2000000, 1:2500000, 1:3,000,000, 1:4,000,000 and an overview map at a scale of 1:5,000,000.
In order to reduce distortion, the surface of the Earth is transferred to a secant cone (Fig. 2.6). A conformal conic projection on a secant cone has the following properties:
1) the angle of convergence of the meridians is determined by the formula
σ= Δλ sinφ cf,
where Δλ is the difference in longitude between given meridians; φ cf - average latitude between the parallels of the section;
2) there are no length distortions on the parallels of the section, and in the band of ±5° from these parallels the distortions are insignificant;
3) the scale at different points of the map is not the same. On the outer sides from the parallels of the section, it is larger, and between the parallels of the section, it is smaller. Such a change in scale is due to the fact that when transferring the Earth's surface to a secant cone, the images on the outer sides of the section parallels have to be stretched, and between the section parallels
4
) the great circle is depicted by a curve convex towards a larger scale and has an inflection point on the parallel of the smallest scale.
In a normal conformal conic projection on a secant cone, onboard maps are published at a scale of 1:2,000,000 (Moscow-Berlin) and 1:2,500,000.
7. Polyconic projections
By the principle of construction, polyconic projections differ slightly from conic ones. They are a further improvement of conic projections.
In polyconic projections, the earth's surface is transferred to the lateral surfaces of several cones tangent to parallels or cutting the globe along given parallels. A small spherical belt of the earth's surface is transferred to the surface of each cone (Fig. 2.7). Then each cone is cut along the generatrix and unfolded onto a plane. After gluing the strips, a polyconic projection is obtained.
Maps in polyconic projection have the following properties:
1) the middle meridian is depicted as a straight line and has no length distortion; therefore, the polyconic projection is most convenient for images of territories stretched along the meridian. The rest of the meridians look like curved lines;
2) parallels are depicted as arcs of circles drawn from different centers lying on the middle meridian;
3) there is no increasing distortion of scales to the north and south, since the main scale is preserved along the parallels of contact (section) of each strip;
4) the projection has distortions of lengths and angles.
This projection is taken as the basis for compiling the conformal international projection.
8. Modified polyconic (international) projection
The modified polyconic projection was adopted at the international geophysical conference in London in 1909 and was called international. In this projection, international map scale 1: 1,000,000.
FROM 
it is built according to a special law adopted by an international agreement.
The principle of constructing maps in a modified polyconic projection at a scale of 1: 1,000,000 consists in. next. The entire earth's surface is divided into belts 4° wide and transferred to the side surfaces of the cones that cut the globe along given parallels. The transfer of terrain is not carried out immediately by the entire belt, but by separate spherical trapezoids, the size of which is 4 ° in latitude and 6 °
by longitude. On each sheet of the map, the meridians are depicted as straight lines converging towards the pole, and the parallels are depicted as arcs of concentric circles. There are no distortions on the extreme parallels of the sheet. In order to evenly distribute the distortions on the map sheet, the meridians that are 2° apart from the middle meridian in both directions are stretched so that they are depicted without distortion. The inner meridians and parallels are left somewhat compressed, while the outer meridians are somewhat stretched (Fig. 2.8).
By the nature of the distortions, the modified polyconic projection is arbitrary. Distortions on the map sheet are so insignificant that the projection is practically considered to be conformal, equidistant and equal area.
The peculiarities of constructing a grid of meridians and parallels in the international projection lead to the fact that only sheets of one column or one strip can be glued without breaks. It is allowed to glue nine sheets (3x3) of 1:1,000,000 scale maps into a “block”. In this case, the resulting gaps do not cause significant distortions of lengths and angles.
Circle line on maps in this projection at a distance of up to 1200 km is depicted by a straight line, and loxodrome is a curve convex to the equator.
Meridian Convergence Angle
σ= Δλ sinφ cf,
where φ cf is the average latitude of the map sheet.
In a modified polyconic projection, in addition to maps at a scale of 1: 1,000,000, a flight map at a scale of 1: 2,000,000 and an onboard map at a scale of 1: 4,000,000 are published.
According to the purpose and tasks performed, the Aviation of the EMERCOM of Russia can be divided into four main classes: multi-purpose, transport, search and rescue and special aviation.
multipurpose aviation
Multi-purpose aviation is aircraft and helicopters capable of performing heterogeneous tasks without changing their design scheme. Their versatility is ensured by the use of multifunctional quick-detachable onboard equipment. For example, on the Ka-226 helicopters planned for adoption, depending on the task, it is possible to install a passenger or cargo cabin, a transport platform, an onboard winch for crane and assembly work, and with an external suspension of a container with special equipment, it can be used for reconnaissance.
In the EMERCOM of Russia, multi-purpose aviation is represented by domestic Mi-2, Mi-8, Ka-32 helicopters and Western European Bo-105 and Bk-117.
transport aviation
Transport aviation includes aircraft and helicopters designed primarily for the transport of goods (cargo), as well as passengers (landing transport, cargo-passenger and passenger).
Cargo - these are transport aircraft and helicopters designed to transport goods and equipment with accompanying personnel. They have a cargo cabin in which the transported cargo is placed and moored, equipped with large cargo hatches, a ramp (ladders) and loading and unloading equipment. Helicopters, in addition, can transport cargo on a flexible or rigid external sling.
Airborne transport aircraft and helicopters are designed for landing search and rescue groups by airborne and landing methods and air transportation of personnel, equipment, material and technical means, evacuation of the injured and sick. Their fuselage is a cargo compartment to accommodate personnel, equipment and cargo. For fastening, loading, unloading and landing of people and cargo, landing-transport equipment is installed in the cabins.
Most troop-carrier aircraft and helicopters in the rear fuselage have a cargo hatch with a reclining ramp, through which loading and unloading on the ground is carried out. Some of them are equipped with a cargo hatch in the side of the fuselage. The tail hatch can also be opened in flight for the ejection of rescuers, equipment and landing cargo on parachute systems.
Cargo-passenger aircraft and helicopters are quickly convertible basic passenger aircraft and helicopters, in the design of which the fuselage design provides for a cargo door, reinforced floor (for cargo transportation) and container and pallet attachment points. An example is all Mi-8, Mi-6 and Mi-26 transport helicopters, which have not only cargo modifications, but also in the passenger version are equipped with a ramp and nodes for mooring cargo.
Passenger planes and helicopters are intended only for the transport of people. However, in case of emergencies, passenger planes and helicopters can be used to transport rescuers, medical workers, victims, cargo and necessary equipment.
In the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia, Il-76, An-74 aircraft and Mi-2, Mi-8, Mi-26 helicopters are used as cargo and cargo-passenger aircraft.
For the transportation of victims from emergency zones, the Aviation of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Russian Federation has Yak-42d and Il-62m passenger aircraft, Mi-26 and Mi-8 cargo-passenger helicopters.
In general, aircraft tend to be multifunctional. For example, the Il-62m is capable of performing a task as an air control post, evacuating Russian citizens from abroad and emergency zones (up to 114 people), transporting operational groups of the Russian Emergencies Ministry, as well as emergency situations commissions of other ministries and departments, carrying out other tasks.
search and rescue aviation
Search and rescue aviation is designed to search for and evacuate crews and passengers from distressed aircraft, helicopters, ships, as well as the population from emergency zones. The crews of aircraft and helicopters are trained in methods of searching for victims in various conditions of the situation and their evacuation.
The evacuation of those in distress and victims with the help of a helicopter is carried out by hovering over the disaster site. Used to lift people rope ladders, winches with cables. Rescue parachutists, rescue equipment and food are dropped from aircraft to the disaster site.
The main search and rescue helicopters used by the Russian Emergencies Ministry are specialized Ka-32a helicopters, Mi-2, Mi-8, Bo-105 and Bk-117 multi-purpose helicopters.
special aviation
Firefighting aviation is designed to extinguish forest and peat fires. In the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia, for this purpose, helicopters are equipped with special spillway devices on an external sling: Mi-8 and Ka-32 - VSU-5, Mi-26 - VSU-15 with a capacity of 5 and 15 tons of fire extinguishing solution, respectively, and Il-76td aircraft are equipped with quick-detachable pouring aviation devices VAP-2 with two tanks with a total volume of up to 42 tons of water. In the near future, it is planned to operate the Be-200chs aircraft, capable of taking up to 12 tons of water.
Aviation emergency medical assistance of the EMERCOM of Russia is designed to provide emergency medical care in emergency areas and emergency evacuation of patients and victims to specialized medical institutions, participate in urgent sanitary and anti-epidemic measures, etc.
All aircraft and helicopters must provide accommodation in the passenger cabin of the sick and injured in chairs, on folding seats or stretchers, as well as the medical staff accompanying them with a set of sanitary facilities to provide them with the necessary assistance during the flight. Specialized modifications of the Mi-2, Mi-8, Mi-6, Mi-26, Ka-32 multi-purpose helicopters and An-74, Il-76 aircraft can be used as ambulances.
In addition, the Il-76 aircraft is capable of delivering or landing to the emergency zone the field hospital of the All-Russian Center for Disaster Medicine "Protection", an airmobile hospital with 50 beds, the base camp of Tsentrospas rescuers, as well as Bo-105 and Bk-117 ambulance helicopters, cars "Ambulance". Also, on the basis of the Il-76 aircraft, a unique flying hospital "Scalpel" was created.
Aircraft and helicopters of control and communications are designed to guide the RSChS forces as air control points (VzPU) and provide stable communication (relay) between ground control points and the forces controlled by them. The Russian Emergencies Ministry prepared Il-62m and Yak-42d aircraft and a Mi-8mt helicopter as air control points.
Patrol and reconnaissance aircraft and helicopters of the EMERCOM of Russia are used to monitor (observe) the state of the terrain and the environment, perform general and special reconnaissance (engineering, radiation, chemical, biological, fire, meteorological and other types).
Patrolling may be carried out in order to control internal and territorial waters, forests,
traffic on roads, the condition of oil and gas pipelines, power lines and other objects.
Depending on the nature of the tasks to be solved and the conditions for conducting reconnaissance, aircraft and helicopters are equipped with recording and transmitting equipment for day and night photography, television and video filming, high-resolution radar stations, heat direction finders, magneto- and radiometric equipment, radiation, chemical and bacteriological control, means of communication.
Patrol and reconnaissance tasks can be performed by modifications of An-74 aircraft and Mi-2, Mi-8, Ka-32 helicopters. Also, the Bo-105 and Bk-117 helicopters are used for these purposes in the Russian Emergencies Ministry.
Rectangular line
With this layout General Map divided into sheets having the shape of a rectangle. The frames of such a sheet do not coincide with the meridians and parallels.
Composite tables.
Designed to select the necessary sheets of maps and determine their nomenclature. Prefabricated tables are a small-scale schematic map with marked lines and nomenclature of sheets of one or more map scales. Collective tables are published on separate sheets.
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On maps, when they are compiled, only those elements that are necessary when using it are applied. On aviation maps are applied: hydrographic objects (seas, lakes, rivers ...), large settlements, road network, isogons, magnetic anomalies.
The image on the map of the elements of the terrain is carried out by conventional signs, which are divided into:
Ø contour;
Ø off-scale;
Ø linear;
Ø explanatory;
Ø signs depicting relief.
Contour signs are used to depict such terrain elements as seas, lakes, swamps, forests, etc. These signs convey the elements of the earth's surface on a scale.
Off-scale signs are used to depict terrain elements that cannot be expressed on a map scale, such as bridges, airfields, pipes, towers, etc.
Linear signs are used to depict rivers, canals, roads and other linear landmarks on a map.
Explanatory signs are used for additional characteristics of terrain elements.
Knowledge of the terrain is of great importance for flight safety. The ability of the crew to accurately and timely determine it on the map ensures the safety of the flight from collision of the aircraft with the terrain or obstacles on it.
The terrain on the map is indicated different ways:
Ø horizontal;
Ø mark of heights;
Ø washing;
Ø hypsometrically.
It is widely used on flight maps when depicting the terrain using the horizontal method. This method allows you to determine the absolute heights and mutual elevations of terrain points, as well as the nature of the terrain, i.e. slope steepness. The essence of the image of the terrain on the map with contour lines is as follows. The earth's surface is cut by planes (horizontals) located one from the other at the same (for a given scale) distance "h". The distance between the following planes is called the section height. The line obtained as a result of cutting a plane with earth's surface, is called horizontal. It essentially connects points on the earth's surface that are at the same height. These horizontal lines are drawn on the map.
The level of the Baltic Sea (zero of the Kronstadt footstock) is taken as the starting point for the height of the terrain in Russia.
Representation of the terrain on the map by contour lines.
Where: h - section height, S - laying.
Knowing the height of the section and the magnitude of the laying, it is possible to calculate the steepness of the slope "" "" according to the formula:
The value "" can be determined from the NL-10m ruler using the key:
or using a scale placed on the lower edge of a large-scale map.
The total height of the section for a given map scale is indicated on the bottom edge of the map. The main horizontals are drawn with a solid line, on which numbers indicating the height above sea level are applied. For a more detailed image of the terrain, in addition to solid contour lines, auxiliary ones are also drawn, which are depicted by a dotted line. By the density of contour lines, one can judge the nature of the relief, and by digital marks, one can judge the absolute heights and mutual elevation of the terrain.
The absolute heights of the terrain on the maps are indicated by numbers, and hillshading is used for visual contrast. Thus, on flight maps, the terrain is depicted in three ways at the same time: contour lines, elevation marks, hillshade.
The hypsometric method is a layer-by-layer coloring with different colors of different terrain heights. For example, from light yellow to dark brown. Each color has a specific height. The tone scale is applied on the bottom edge of the map.
Classification and characteristics of charts used in aviation.
According to their purpose, the cards used in aviation are divided into: flight, airborne, special and patrol. On board the aircraft, the crew is required to have a flight and onboard card, and in case of aviation forest protection flights, a patrol card.
Flight maps are intended for flight along the route of the flight area. They are used for laying a route, calculating a flight, maintaining visual orientation, and determining navigation elements. For aircraft of classes 1, 2, 3, maps of scale 1: 2,000,000 are used as flight charts, covering an area of at least 200 km on both sides of a given route.
For aircraft of class 4 and helicopters of all classes - a map of scale 1: 1000000, covering the area on both sides of the given route for at least 100 km.
Depending on the nature of the flights, maps of a larger scale may also be used as flight charts. For example, a flight chart of scale 1: 500,000 is used for aerial forestry work.
On-board maps are intended for restoring orientation, avoiding dangerous weather phenomena, as well as flying to a safe airfield and using RTS to determine the position of the aircraft.
For airplanes of classes 1, 2 and 3, a map of scale 1: 2000000 is used as an on-board map, covering the area on both sides of a given route of at least 1500 km for classes 1 and 2 and 700 km for class 3. If necessary, a 1:4000000 scale map can be used as an onboard map.
For aircraft of the 4th class and helicopters of all classes, a 1:2000000 scale map is used as an onboard map, covering the area on both sides of a given route for at least 400 km.
On the board card are applied:
Ø the main routes of flight and departure to the alternate airfield;
Ø radio equipment in the form of symbols;
Ø azimuth circles and sectors with centers at the locations of radio equipment;
Ø magnetic declinations along the route and at RTS installation sites.
Special maps are intended for use for air navigation purposes: radio beacons, hyperbolic systems, as well as use as reference materials: time zones, magnetic declinations, etc. As special maps, maps of a scale of 1: 4,000,000 are used.
As a patrol map, a map of scale 1: 300000, 1: 200000, 1: 100000 is used. It is designed for exact definition the location of a forest fire, its characteristics and methods of fighting it.
The transition from the flight map to the patrol one is carried out according to a characteristic landmark identified on both maps.
On the patrol card are applied:
Ø quarter network;
Ø borders of forestries and forestries with the designation of their names;
Ø location of points for receiving reports about a forest fire;
Ø and other load according to the Instructions for the aviation protection of forests.
__.Topic No. 1: “Basic geographical concepts. Maps used in aviation.»
Aviation cards according to their purpose are divided into:
1) Maps planning– designed to obtain reference data when planning flights. They are used during preliminary preparation and allow:
Select alternate airfields
Pre-determine the total fuel charge
Select route maps
2)Route maps - designed to solve the main problems of aircraft navigation in the preparation and execution of the flight
These maps are similar to regular maps, but are more detailed. They are usually published in scales of 1:1000000 and 1:2000000. Their projection according to the nature of the distortions is arbitrary (called a modified polyconic or international projection), but the distortions within the map sheet are small and can be neglected in most cases when measuring on the map. From the geographical load, the map shows mainly those objects that can be used for orientation: water and forests, settlements, highways (in red) and railways (black), etc. From the special air navigation load, isogons are plotted with red dotted lines, connecting points with the same magnetic declination.
3)Route maps issued by foreign firms, have the same purpose, but are produced in different scales, carry more air navigation load and, of course, use other conventional signs. The most widely used charts are issued by the Jeppesen Corporation, which is the world leader in providing aeronautical information.
4) Radio navigation maps are made in a conformal projection on a scale of 1:2000000. These charts are intended for instrument flights and therefore there is little geographical load on them: seas, large and medium-sized rivers and settlements, main lakes and roads. There are no small landmarks for them. But a lot has been done aeronautical information: coordinates of waypoints, distances and track angles, data from ground-based radio navigation aids (coordinates, frequencies, call signs, operating hours) and much more. Radio navigation charts are no longer so much charts as aeronautical information documents.
5)Special and reference maps are intended for preparation and performance of flights. These include maps of magnetic declination, time zones, climatic and meteorological maps, star charts, etc.
COURSES AND COUNTERS
1) EARTH MAGNETISM - To determine and maintain the course of an aircraft, magnetic compasses are most widely used, the principle of operation of which is based on the use of the Earth's magnetic field.
The earth is a large natural magnet with a magnetic field around it. The magnetic poles of the Earth do not coincide with the geographic ones and are located not on the surface of the Earth, but at some depth.
Earth's magnetic field
The dipole planet's magnet axis is tilted to the Earth's axis of rotation at an angle of approximately 11.5º. This conditional dipole creates approximately 70% of the magnetic field. However, regional and local magnetic anomalies cause a curvature of field lines in different places planets.
Magnetic inclination Θ is the angle between the horizontal plane and the direction of the strength vector T.
It turns out that in the magnetic poles the magnetic elements of terrestrial magnetism are: tension (T), inclination (Θ) and declination (Δm).
The tension vector T is directed tangentially to the lines of force, it is in general case does not lie in the plane of the horizon and, due to the curvature of the lines of force, does not coincide with the plane of the geographic meridian. If we place the beginning of a rectangular coordinate system at any point and direct the OX axis along the meridian to the north, the OY axis perpendicular to it to the east, and the OZ axis to direct downwards, then the vector T can be decomposed into a horizontal component H and a vertical Z (Fig. 3.2 ). The direction of the horizontal component H is very important for air navigation, since this direction is called north direction of the magnetic meridian at this point. Obviously, the angle between the OX axis (the direction of the true meridian) and the vector H (the direction of the magnetic meridian) is nothing but magnetic declinationΔm at a given point.
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