Geographical maps for content and purpose are divided into special and generalized.

Special maps show contours and special loads (mineral map, physical map of the world, political map, map of the plant and animal world, economic card).

The generalographic maps show the situation and relief.

Notebook maps smaller 1: 1000000, are called overview.

Logging map 3: 100,000,000 and larger, are called topographic maps.

Topographic maps, plans and differences between them

Topographic maps are created in a zonal equivalent cross-cylindrical projection K.F. Gauss-Kruger calculated on the reference ellipsoid F.N. Krasovsky in the state coordinate system of 1942 in 6 ° zone. And plans on a scale of 1: 5,000 and larger in 3 ° zone. Point heights are determined in the absolute Baltic height system from zero of the Kronstaddian footbath.

The map is built in a cartographic projection, a reduced and generalized image on the plane of the entire Earth or its part, taking into account the curvature of the Earth.

The compilation of the card starts with the construction of a cartographic grid, inside which the symbols depict the situation and relief.

The cartographic grid is a network of parallels and meridians.

The plan is a reduced and similar image of the projection of a small area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain on the plane excluding the curvature of the Earth.

The compilation of the plan starts with the construction of the coordinate grid, within which, according to the results of the field survey, the symbols are depicted by the situation and relief.

The coordinate grid is mutually perpendicular lines on the map forming squares, the sides of which are parallel to the axes X and Y (i.e., axial meridian and equator.)

Plans are divided into contour (situational) and topographic.

Contour plans - plans on only the contours of the situation of the area without image of the relief.

Topographic - plans on which the situation of the terrain and relief are also depicted.

Differences between the card and the plan:

1. The plan is based on the coordinate grid.

Map - based on a cartographic grid.

2. Plan - an image of a small plot of land without taking into account the curvature of the Earth.

Map is an image of the entire Earth or a large plot of land, taking into account the curvature of the Earth.

3. Only a rectangular coordinate system only.

On the map two coordinate systems: rectangular and geographical.

Presentation on the topic: topographic maps and plans. Scale. Conditional signs. Linear measurements on topographic maps and plans

1 of 22.

Presentation on the topic: Topographic maps and plans. Scale. Conditional signs. Linear measurements on topographic maps and plans

Slide number 1

Slide description:

Laboratory work number 1 Topic: topographic maps and plans. Scale. Conditional signs. Linear measurements on topographic maps and plans Purpose: familiarize yourself with topographic maps and plans, scale, types of conditional signs. Master the measurement and construction of segments using graphic scales work plan: Topographic plan and topographic Map cutting signs, accuracy Scalable measurements on topographic plans and cardageShtroining segments of a given length using a transverse scale of the length of broken and curvilinear seven-way task (individual settlement and graphic work)

Slide 2 number

Slide description:

1.Topographic plan and topographic map The topographic plan is a reduced and similar image on paper in the conditional signs of horizontal projections of the contours of objects and the relief of a small area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain without taking into account the sphericity of the Earth. Contains plans are two types: contour (situational) - they are depicted only Local facilities; topographic - depicted local objects and relief.

No. Slide 3.

Slide description:

Slide 4 number

Slide description:

1.Topographic plan and topographic Cartopographic map - a reduced generalized image in the conditional signs on paper of horizontal projections of the contours of artificial and natural objects and the relief of significant in the size of the plot of land, taking into account its sphericity. According to the content of the card, there are the following types: generalographic - the earth's surface is shown on them In all its variety; Special Miscellaneous Purpose (Soil Map, Peat Map, Vegetation Map, etc.), on which individual elements are depicted - soils, peat deposits, vegetation, etc. The scale of the map is conditionally divided Three types: small-scale (smaller 1: 1 000 000); Mid-scale (1: 1 000 000 - 1: 200,000); large-scale (scale from 1: 100,000 to 1:10,000); plans - larger 1: 10000 .

No. Slide 5.

Slide description:

2. Conditional signs The conventional signs that are used to designate on plans and maps of various objects of the terrain are uniform for all Russia and in the nature of the image are divided into 2 groups. Scaped (area) conventional signs are used for the image of objects occupying a significant area and expressed on the scale Maps or plan. The area of \u200b\u200bthe conditional sign consists of a sign of the object boundary and filling it with its icons or conditional color. At the same time, the area objects are depicted in compliance with the scale, which makes it possible to determine the plan or map not only the location of the item, but also its size, form. These are conventional conventional signs that are depicted without compliance with the scale of the card or plan, which indicates only The nature and position of the object in space along its center (wells, geodesic signs, springs, pillars, etc.). These signs do not allow to judge the size of the depicted local items. For example, in a large-scale map, the city of Tomsk is represented in the form of a circuit (large-scale); On the map of Russia in the form of a point (introduced).

No. Slide 6.

Slide description:

2. Conditional signs according to the image method on the map. Graphic conventional signs are used for the image of linear type objects: roads, rivers, pipelines, power lines, etc., the width of which is less accuracy of the scale of this map. Color conditional signs: Wash color along the contour of the object; Lines and objects of various colors. In. Explanatory conventional signs - complement other conditional signs with digital data explaining inscriptions; Different objects are set in different objects to characterize their property or quality, for example: bridge width, tree breed, average height and thickness of trees in the forest, the width of the roadway and the total road width, and the like topographic map. The symbols are indicated in a strictly defined sequence : Explanations to conditional signs are always presented to the right and only on the curricula.

No. Slide 7.

Slide description:

Slide 8

Slide description:

3. Scale, accuracy of scale The horizontal projections of segments in the preparation of cards and plans are depicted on paper in a reduced form, i.e. On scale. Maps (plan) - the ratio of the line length on the map (plan) to the length of the horizontal area of \u200b\u200bthe area of \u200b\u200bthe area:. (1) The scale is numerical and graphic. Numerical 1) in the form of a simple fraction:, (2) where M is the degree of reduction or denominator of a numerical scale. 2) in the form of a named ratio, for example: in 1 cm 20 m, in 1 cm 10 m using the scale, the following tasks can be solved. In the length of the segment on the plan of a specified scale, determine the length of the line on the ground. 2. In the length of the horizontal projection of the line, determine the length of the corresponding segment on the scale plan.

Slide number 9.

Slide description:

3. Scale, scale accuracy to avoid calculations and speed up the work, as well as increase the accuracy of measurements on maps and plans, use graphic scales: linear (Fig. 1.2) and transverse (Fig). Linen scale - graphic image of a numerical scale in the form of Direct line. For the construction of a linear scale on a straight line lay a number of segments of the same length. The initial segment is called base base (OM). Scale base This conditionally adopted length of segments of the linear scale from zero in the right side of the linear scale and one division in the left side, which in turn is divided by ten equal parts. (M \u003d 1: 10,000). A linear scale allows you to estimate the segment with an accuracy of 0.1 stakes of the base accurately and to 0.01 shares of the knee base (for a given scale).

No. Slide 10.

Slide description:

3. Scale, scale accuracy for more accurate measurements use a transverse scale having an additional construction vertical on a linear scale. The transverse scale of the delay of the required amount of scale base (usually with a length of 2 cm, and then the scale is called normal) restore perpendicular to the original line and divide them to equal segments (on m parts). If the base is divided into n equal parts and the fission point of the upper and lower base is connected by sloping lines as shown in the figure, then the segment. A transverse scale allows you to estimate the segment of exactly 0.01 the shares of the base, and to 0.001 the shares of the base - to the eye.

No. Slide 11.

Slide description:

3. Scale, the scale accuracy of the transverse scale is engraved on metal rules, which are called large-scale. Before applying a large-scale line, the base and its shares should be estimated according to the following scheme. Example: Let the numerical scale of 1: 5000, named ratio be: 1 cm 50 m. If the transverse scale is normal (base 2 cm), then: one whole base base (OM) - 100 m; 0.1 base scale - 10 m; 0.01 base base - 1 m; 0.001 base base - 0.1 m.

No. Slide 12.

Slide description:

3. Scale, scale accuracy accuracy scale makes it possible to determine which area objects can be depicted on the plan, and which are not due to their small size. The opposite question is solved: on what scale it is necessary to make a plan to make items that have, for example, 5 m sizes were depicted on the plan. In order that in a particular case, a certain solution could be taken, the concept of scale accuracy is introduced. This proceeds from the physiological possibilities of the human eye. It is customary to measure the distance using a circulation and a large-scale ruler, more precisely than 0.1 mm, it is impossible on this scale (such is the diameter of the circle from the sharp needle). Therefore, under the maximum accuracy of the scale understand the length of the segment on the ground corresponding to 0.1 mm on the plan of this scale. It is practically adopted that the length of the segment on the plan or the card can be estimated with an accuracy of ± 0.2 mm. The horizontal distance on the ground, corresponding to 0.2 mm on the plan, is called graphics accuracy. Consequently, on this scale (1: 2000) the smallest differences that can be revealed graphically, are 0.4 m. The transverse scale accuracy coincides with the graphically accuracy.

Slide number 13.

Slide description:

4. Linear measurements on topographic maps and segments plans, the length of which is determined by the map or plan, can be straightforward and curvilinear. Determine the linear dimensions of the object on the map or plan possible with: 1. line and numerical scale; Measuring the segment of the line, for example, 98 mm, or on-980 m. Evaluating the accuracy of linear measurements should be taken into account that the line can be measured with a length of at least 0.5 mm long - this is the magnitude of the linear measurement error using the line 2. Circular meter and linear scale; 3. Circular meter and transverse scale.

Slide 14 No.

Slide description:

4. Linear measurements on topographic maps and plans of a circulator and a linear scale; The measurement of segments using a linear scale is carried out in the following order: take into a solution of the circular meter of the segment that needs to be measured; apply the circular solution to the base of a linear scale, while its right leg is combined with one of the base strokes so that the left leg is placed on the base Left from zero (on a fractional basis); Calculate the number of integers and tenths of the base of the scale:

Slide number 15.

Slide description:

4. Linear measurements on topographic maps and circulator plans and transverse scales digitize transverse scale (normal) on the map scale (in this case 1: 10,000): Fig. 1.4. Measurement of a segment using a transverse scale We lead in the following form

No. Slide 16.

Slide description:

5. Building segments of a given length using a transverse scale Let it be necessary to postpone on the map of the scale of 1: 5000 segments, the length of which is 173.3 m. Make a painting according to the map scale (1: 5000): 2. To calculate the number of integers, tenths, hundredths and thousandths of scale bases. Valid on the circulatory meter using a transverse scale calculated by the amount of integer, tenths, hundredths and thousands of scale bases. Place a segment on paper - pierce the sheet of paper and circle the two points obtained with circles. The diameter of the circles is 2-3 mm.

Slide number 17.

Slide description:

6. Measurement of the length of broken and curvilinear segments The measurement of broken segments is carried out in parts or method of extension (Fig. 7): Install the legs of the meter at points A and B, lay a ruler in the direction of B-B, move the foot of the meter from point A to point A1, Add a segment of B-B, etc. measuring curvilinear segments is possible in several ways:. Using a cevimimeter (approximate); the method of extension; a constant solution with a meter.

No. Slide 18.

Slide description:

7. The solution of the tasks is known for the line length on the map (2.14 cm) and on the ground (4280.0 m). Determine the numerical scale of the card. (2.48cm; 620 m) Write a named scale corresponding to numerical 1: 500, 1: 25000. (1: 2000, 1: 10,000) On the plan M 1: 5000, to display the object whose length is on the ground - 30 m. Determine the length of the object on the plan in mm. Will the limit and graphical accuracy of 1: 1000 scale; 1: 5000.In the help of a circular meter and a normal transverse scale to postpone on a sheet of paper segment 74.4 m on 1: 2000 scale. (1415 m on a scale of 1: 25000) to determine by the help of a transverse scale between absolute points of points - 129.2 and 122.1 (square 67-12 of the curriculum). (141.4 and 146.4 (square 67-12). Measure the length of the stream (to the r. Blue) (square 64-11) with a meter and a circulator with a solution with a solution of 1 mm. Compare results. Horizontal injections between two points On the plan M 1: 1000 is 2 cm. Determine the distance between these points on the ground.

22

Slide description:

References Methodical instructions for the implementation of laboratory work on the discipline "Geodesius and topography" for students of the daytime training of the direction 130201 "Geophysical methods of searching and exploration of mineral deposits" and 130202 "Geophysical methods of research of wells". - Tomsk: ed. TPU, 2006 - 82 s. Zhanovy geodesy and topography: Tutorial / V.M. Peremerin, N.V. Chuseva, N.A. Anthropova. - Tomsk: Publishing House of Tomsk Polytechnic University, 2008. -123 S. Called signs for topographic plans of scale 1: 5000, 1: 2000, 1: 1000, 1: 500 / Main control of geodesy and cartography at the Council of Ministers of the USSR. - M.: Nedra, 1989. -286 p.

Topographic maps and plans

topographic Map Relief Plan

1. Material information about topographic materials

Topographic materials, which are a reduced projected image of the sections of the earth's surface to the plane, are divided into cards and plans.

The topographic layout is called a reduced and similar image on paper situation and terrain. This image is obtained with orthogonal projection of the ground surface sections with a size that does not exceed 20 x 20 km, on the horizontal plane. In the reduced form, such an image represents the area of \u200b\u200bthe area. The situation is the set of objects of terrain, relief - a set of various forms of irregularities of the earth's surface. The area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain, compiled without the image of the relief, is called situational (contour).

Thus, the plan is a drawing consisting of horizontal positions-segments obtained by orthogonal design of the corresponding segments of the area (building structures, roads, elements of hydrography, etc.).

As a plan, a number of construction drawings are included in the design and technical documentation necessary in the construction of buildings and structures. Such drawings make it possible to consider the reduced images of building structures from above.

The image of large parts of the earth's surface on the plane cannot be obtained without distortion, i.e., with the preservation of a complete similarity. Such areas are orthogonally projected to the surface of the ellipsoid, and then from the surface of the ellipsoid according to certain mathematical laws, called cartographic projections (the Gauss-Kruger's projection) is transferred to the plane. The reduced image on the plane thus obtained is called the card.

The topographic map is called a reduced, generalized and built according to certain mathematical laws. Image of significant areas of the earth's surface.

The visual perception of the image of the earth's surface, its characteristic features and features is associated with the visibility of plans and cards. Claiming is due to the release of typical damnities that determine its distinctive features, by generalizations - generalization, as well as the use for the image of the terrestrial surface of the topographic conventional signs - symbols of symbols.

Maps and plans must be reliable, i.e. the information that makes up their content to a specific date must be correct corresponding to the states of the objects depicted on them. An important element of confidence is the completeness of the content, which includes the required amount of information and their versatility.

By destination, topographic maps and plans are divided into main and specialized. Basically include maps and plans of national mapping. These materials are multipurpose, so they reflect all elements of situations and relief.

Specialized maps and plans create for solving specific tasks of a separate industry. So, road maps contain a more detailed characteristic of the road network. Specialized includes survey plans used only during the design and construction of buildings and structures. In addition to plans and cards, topographic materials include areas of terrain, which are a reduced image of the vertical cut of the earth's surface along the selected direction. Terrain profiles are a topographic basis in the preparation of design and technical documentation necessary in the construction of underground and ground pipelines, roads and other communications.

2. Scale

The degree of decrease in the image in terms of the contours of the terrain, otherwise the ratio of the length of the line segment on the plan (map) to the corresponding horizontal position of this segment on the ground is called a scale. Scale are divided into numerical and linear.

Numerical scaling, whose numerator is a unit, and the denominator is a number indicating how many times the lines and items are reduced when they are on the plan (map).

On each sheet of the card or plan signed its numerical scale in the form: 1: 1000; 1: 5000; 1:10 000; 1: 25000, etc.

Linear scale is a graphical expression of a numerical scale (Fig. 9). To build a linear scale, a straight line is carried out and the same distance in centimeters, called the base of the scale, is deficked on it several times. The base is usually taken in two centimeters long. The length of the line on the ground corresponding to the base of a linear scale is signed from left to right in the course of its rise, and the first left base is divided into 10 parts. The practical accuracy of a linear scale is ± 0.5 mm, which corresponds to 0.02-0.03 base base.

For more accurate graphic works on the plan use the transverse scale, allowing to measure the segments with an accuracy of 0.01 of its base.

A transverse scale is a graph based on proportional division (Fig. 10); To build a scale on a straight place several times the basis of scale; Points of divisions are restored by perpendicular; The first left base is divided by 10

Fig.9. Linear and numerical scales on topographic maps

parts, and on the perpendiculars, 10 equal parts are also laid and through the deposit points are carried out, parallel bases, as shown in Fig. 10. From the similarity of triangles VDE and BDE) DE / DE \u003d BD / BD or DE \u003d BD ∙ DE / BO, but DE \u003d AB / 10, BD \u003d BD / 10. Substituting DE and BD values, we obtain de \u003d AB / 100, t. e. The smallest division of the transverse scale is equal to the hundredth of the base. The scale with a base of 10mm can determine the lengths of segments with an accuracy of 0.1 mm. The use of any scale, even transverse, cannot provide accuracy above a certain limit depending on the properties of the human eye. The naked eye from the distance of normal vision (25cm) can be estimated on the plan size that does not exceed 0.1mm (parts of the object objects less than 0.1mm can not be portrayed on the plan). The accuracy of the scale is characterized by a horizontal distance on the ground, corresponding to the plan 0.1mm. For example, for plans to draw 1: 500, 1: 1000, 1: 2000, the accuracy of scale is respectively equal to 0.05, 0.1, 0.2 m. The accuracy of the scale is determined by the degree of generalization (generalization) of the details that can be depicted on the plan (map) of one scale.

3.Y.like plans and maps

On topographic maps and plans depict different objects of the area: contours of settlements, gardens, gardens, lakes, rivers, road lines, power transmission. The totality of these objects is called the situation. The situation is depicted by conventional signs.

Conditional signs, mandatory for all institutions and organizations that make up topographic maps and plans are established by the Federal Surveying Service and Cartography of Russia (Roskartography) and are issued either separately for each scale or for a group of scales. Although the number of conditional signs is large (about 400), they are easily remembered, since externally resemble the type and nature of the objects depicted.

Conditional signs are divided into five groups: square, linear, bonus, explanatory, special.

Area conditional signs (Fig. 11, a) are used to fill objects of objects (for example: arable land, forests, lakes, meadows); They consist of a sign of the object boundary (point dotted line or thin solid line) and fill it in its images or conditional color; For example, a birch forest is shown on the synchronous sign 1; Figures (20 / 0.18) ∙ 4 are characterized by ancient: Numerator - middle height, denominator - average thickness of the trunk, 4 - average distance between trees.

Linear symptoms provide linear facilities (roads, rivers, communication lines, power transmission), the length of which is expressed on this scale. On the conventional images, various features of objects are given; For example, on the highway 7 shown, M: the width of the roadway - 8, the whole road - 12; On the railway 8, M: +1.8 - the height of the mound, -2.9 - the depth of the excavation.

Make-up conditional signs are used for the image of objects, the dimensions of which are not displayed on a given map or plan (bridges, kilometer pillars, wells, geodesic items).

As a rule, the bumps are determined by the location of objects, but it is impossible to judge them on them. On signs, various characteristics are given, for example: length 17 and 3m wooden bridge width 12, 493,500 points of the geodesic network 16.

Explanatory conventional signs are digital and alphabetic inscriptions, characterizing objects, for example: depth and speed of rivers flow, load capacity and width of bridges, forest breed, middle height and thickness of trees, width of highways. They are affixed on the main area, linear, in-scale signs.

Special conventional signs (Fig.11, D) establish the relevant departments of the sectors of the national economy; They are used to compile specialized maps and plans for this industry, for example, signs for the surveying plans of oil and gas fields - oilfield facilities and installations, wells, commercial pipelines.

To give a map or plan greater visibility, colors are used for images of various elements: for rivers, lakes, canals, wetlands - blue; forests and gardens - green; highways - red; Improved ground roads - orange.

Everything else is given in black. On the survey plans, the color of underground communications (pipelines, cables) are made.

4.R.eclipse and methods of its image. Crudy scalp

The terrain is called a combination of irregularities of the earth's surface.

Depending on the nature of the relief, the area is divided into flat, sobmlen and mountain. The flat terrain has low-voltage forms or is almost no irregularities; Schobmlen is characterized by alternating relatively small in height of increasing and decrease; Mountain is an alternation of elevation with a height of more than 500m above sea level, separated by valleys.

Of the variety of land relief forms, you can select the most characteristic (Fig.12).

Mountain (hill, height, hill) is a cone-shaped form of relief over the surrounding terrain, the highest point of which is called the vertex (3, 7, 12). The vertex in the form of a platform is called a plateau, the peak of a pointed peak. The side surface of the mountain consists of the rods, the line of fusion of them with the surrounding area - the sole, or the base, mountains.

Fig. 12. Characteristic Relief Forms: 1 - Hollow; 2 - ridge; 3,7,12 - vertices; 4 - watershed; 5.9 - saddles; 6 - Talveg; 8 - river; 10 - cliff; 11 - Terrace

Basin or Wpadina, is a depression in the form of a bowl. The lowest point of the basin - bottom. The side surface consists of the skates, the line of fusion of them with the surrounding terrain is called an eyebrow.

The ridge2 is a hill, gradually falling in one direction and having two steep skates called slopes. The axis of the ridge between the two slopes is called a water-seated line or watershed 4.

Lovely 1 is an elongated deepening area, gradually dropping in one direction. The lump axis between the two slopes is called a water-felled line or Talveg 6. The varieties of the hollow are: valley - a wide hollow with gentle slopes, as well as ravine - a narrow hollow with almost sheer slopes (cliffs 10). The initial stage of the ravine is promin. The ravine, overgrown with grass and shrub, is called beam. Sometimes located on the slopes of the hollow platform, having a type of ledge or step with an almost horizontal surface, are called terraces 11.

Sedlovins5, 9 are low parts of the area between the two vertices. Through the saddle in the mountains, roads often pass; In this case, the saddle is called the pass.

The top of the mountain, the bottom of the hollow and the lowest point of the saddle are characteristic terrain points. Water discharge and Talveg are characteristic relief lines. The characteristic points and lines of the relief facilitate recognition of individual forms of it on the ground and their image on the map and plan.

The way of image of the relief on the maps and plans should give the opportunity to judge the direction and steepness of the rods, as well as determine the marks of the area points. At the same time, it should be visual. Various ways of the relief image are known: promising, hatching lines of different thickness, color wash (mountains - brown, dell - green), horizontal. The most advanced ways of image of the relief image - horizontals in combination with the signature of characteristic points (Fig.13) and digital.

The horizontal is the line on the map connecting points with equal heights. If you imagine a cross section of the surface of the earth horizontal (level) surface P 0, then the line intersection of these surfaces, orthogonally sprobed to the plane and reduced to the size of the card or plan, and will be horizontal. If the surface p 0 is located at a height of H from the level surface adopted for the beginning of the countdown of absolute heights, then any point on this horizontal will have an absolute mark equal to H. An image in the horizontal relief of the entire area of \u200b\u200bthe area can be obtained as a result of the surface section of this section near the horizontal surface. Planes P 1, P 2, ... P N, located at the same distance from each other. As a result, horizontals with H + H, H + 2H, etc. are obtained on the map.

The distance H between the secting horizontal planes is called the height of the relief cross section. Its value is indicated on the map or plan under linear scale. Depending on the scale of the map and the nature of the graph of the relief, the height of the section is different.

The distance between horizontals on the map or the plan is called the downstream. The greater the mark, the smaller the steepness of the skate on the ground, and vice versa.

Fig. 13. Horizontal terrain image

Horizontal property: horizontals never intersect, with the exception of hanging rock, natural and artificial funnels, narrow ravines, steep cliffs that are not displayed by horizontals, but are denoted by conventional signs; horizontally continuous closed lines that can end only on the border of the plan or card; The thicker horizontal, the steeper the relief of the depicted area, and vice versa.

The main form of relief is depicted by horizontals as follows (Fig.14).

Images of the mountain and hollow (see Fig.14, a, b), as well as the ridge and hollow (see Fig.14, B, D), are similar to each other. To distinguish them from each other, the horizontal indicate the direction of the skate. Some horizontals sign the marks of characteristic points, and so that the top of the digits is directed towards increasing the skate.

Fig. 14. Horizontal image of the characteristic form of relief: a - mountain; b - basin; in the ridge; G- loschina; d - saddle; 1 - Top; 2 - bottom; 3 - watershed; 4 - Talveg

If, at a given height of the relief section, some characteristic features cannot be expressed, it is carried out additional semi-and a quarter of the horizontal, respectively, after half or the fourth part of the resulting height of the relief cross section. Additional horizontals are depicted by dotted lines.

To facilitate reading horizontals on the map, some of them thicken. With the height of section 1, 5, 10, and 20m thicker each fifth horizontal with marks, multiple, respectively, 5, 10, 25, 50m. With a height of the section, 2.5 m thicker each fourth horizontal with multiple 10m.

Crudy ride. About the steepness of the skate can be judged by the magnitude of the attachment on the map. The less the mint (the distance between horizontals), the steeper of the skate. For the characteristics of the steepness of the skate on the ground, the angle of inclination ν is used. The vertical angle of inclination is called an angle concluded between the area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain and its horizontal position. The angle ν may vary from 0º for horizontal lines and up to ± 90º - for vertical. The greater the angle of inclination, the steeper of the skate.

Another characteristic of the steepness is a slope. The bias of the area line call the relation of exceeding the horizontal paugulation \u003d H / D \u003d TGν.

From the formula it follows that the slope is a dimensionless value. It is expressed as a percentage% (hundredths) or in PROMILL ‰ (thousandths). Nazad<../Октябрь/Бесплатные/геодезия/новые%20методички/Учебное%20пособие%20по%20инженерной%20геодезии.wbk>

5. Classification and nomenclature of plans and cards

Maps and plans are classified mainly on scale and appointment.

The scale of the card is divided into finely, medium and large-scale. Small-scale cards smaller 1: 1000000 These are a visual card and in geodesy practically do not apply; Medium-scale (overview and topographic) Maps of scale 1: 1000000, 1: 500000, 1: 300000 and 1: 200000; Large-scale (topographic) - scale 1: 100000, 1: 50000, 1:25 000, 1: 10000. The large-scale range of a large-scale row ends with topographic plans of scale 1: 5000, 1: 2000, 1: 1000, 1: 500. In construction sometimes make up plans in scale

: 200, 1: 100 and 1:50.

On the appointment, topographic maps and plans are divided into basic and specialized. For the main cards and state mapping plans. These are multipurpose maps, so they display all the elements of the terrain.

Fig. 15. Map division: 1: 100000 on sheets of cards Scales 1: 50000, 1: 25000 and 1: 10000

The nomenclature is based on the international divination of the sheet map sheets 1: 100,000,000. The sheets of the map of this scale are limited by meridians and parallels by latitude of 4º, by long time 6º. Each sheet takes only him belonging to him, being marked with a capital latin letter, which determines the horizontal belt, and the Arabic digit that determines the number of the vertical column. For example, a list of map map 1: 1000000, where Moscow is located, has a nomenclature N-37.

Demanding cards of larger scales is obtained by a sequential division of a 1: 1000000 scale map sheet. To one sheet of map scale 1: 1 000000 corresponds: Four sheets of scale 1: 500,000, denoted by letters A, B, B, G (the nomenclature of these sheets has the form, for example, N-37-A); nine sheets of scale 1: 300000, denoted by Roman numbers І, ІІ, ..., ix (for example, IX -N-37); 36 sheets of scale 1: 200,000, which are also denoted by Roman numbers (for example, N-37-I); 144 Lisbage sheet 1: 100000, denoted by Arabic numbers from 1 to 144 (for example, N-37-144).

One sheet of card 1: 100000 corresponds to four sheet map 1: 50,000, denoted by letters A, B, B, G; The nomenclature of the sheets of this card has the form, for example, N-37-144-a. One sheet of card 1: 50000 corresponds to four sheets of scale map 1: 25000, denoted by letters A, B, B, G, for example N-37-144-a-a. One sheet of card 1: 25000 corresponds to four sheets of cards 1: 10,000, denoted by numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, for example N-37-144-A-A-L.

Figure 15 shows the numbering of sheet card sheets 1: 50000 ... 1: 10,000, which constitutes a sheet map 1: 100000.

The ruin of the sheets of large-scale plans is made in two ways. For shooting and drawing up plans on an area Over 20 km 2, the scales map are taken as the basis of the separation

: 100000, which is divided by 256 parts for a scale of 1: 5000, and each leaf of scale 1: 5000 is nine parts for 1: 2000 scale plans. In this case, the nomenclature of the leaf of 1: 5000 has the form, for example, N-37-144 (256), and the scale of 1: 2000 - N-37-144 (256-C).

For plans of a plot of less than 20 km 2, a rectangular separation is used (Fig. 16) for a scale of 1: 5000 with a 40x40 cm sheet framework, and for the scale of 1: 2000 ... 1: 500 - 50x50 cm. The basis of the rectangular separation is taken 1: 5000, denoted by Arabic numbers (for example, 1). List of a plan on a scale of 1: 5000 corresponds to four sheets on the scale of 1: 2000, denoted by letters A, B, B, G. List of a plan on a scale of 1: 2000 correspond to four sheets on 1: 1000, denoted by Roman numbers, and 16 sheets in 1: 500 scale, denoted by Arabic numbers.

Fig. 16. Rectangular Plan List Default

The plans shown in the figure 1: 2000, 1: 1000, 1: 500 are 2-g, 3-b-IV, 4-B-16, respectively.

6.The plans and maps

The geographical coordinates of points A (Fig. 17.) The breadth φ and the longitude of λ are determined on the plan or map, using the minute trapezoid frames.

To determine the latitude of the point and spend the line parallel to the frames of the trapez and take the counts in the crossing places with a scale of Western or Eastern Frame.

Similarly, to determine longitude through the point A, the meridian is carried out and take counts on the scales of the northern or southern frame.

Fig. 17. Determination of the coordinates of the point on the topographic plan: 1 - vertical kilometer line; 2 - digital designation of horizontal mesh lines; 3 - digital designations of vertical lines of the coordinate grid; 4 - internal frame; 5 - Frame with Minutes; 6 - horizontal kilometer line

In the given example of the latitude φ \u003d 54º58,6 'p. sh., long distance λ \u003d 37º31,0 'c. d.

Rectangular coordinates x a and y A point A are determined relative to milestone mesh lines.

For this, the distance Δx and Δy is measured by perpendiculars to the nearest kilometer lines with x 0 and y 0 coordinates and find

X a \u003d x 0 + Δx

Y a \u003d y 0 + Δy.

The distances between points on the plans and maps are determined by linear or transverse scale, curvilinear segments - the device in the device.

To measure the directional corner of the line through the initial point, a line is carried out, parallel axis of the abscissa, and directly measured at this point. You can also continue the line before crossing it the nearest line of the coordinate grid and measure the directory angle at the intersection point.

To directly measure the true azimuth line through its starting point, a meridian (parallel to the eastern or western trapezium frame) is carried out and the azimuth is measured relative to it.

Since the meridian is difficult to carry out, you can first determine the directional corner of the line, and then according to the above formulas, calculate true and magnetic azimuths.

Definition of steepness of the skate. The steepness of the skate is characterized by an angle of inclination ν, which forms a line of the area, for example AB, with a horizontal plane P (Fig.18).

tG ν \u003d H / A, (15.1)

where H is the height of the relief cross section; A - casting.

Knowing tangent, according to the tables of trigonometric functions, or using a microcalculator, find the value of the angle of inclination.

Skate steepness is also characterized by a line bias

i \u003d Tgν. (15.2)

The lines of the lines are measured as a percentage or ppm (‰), i.e. by thousands of units.

Fig. 18. Scheme to definition of steepness of the skate

As a rule, when working with a card or plan, the angle of inclination or the slope of the skate is determined by using charts (Fig. 19) the scale of the attachment.

Fig. 19. The schedules of the scale of scale 1: 1000 at the height of the cross section of the relief H \u003d 1.0 m A - for the angles of inclination; B - slopes.

To do this, it takes the mark between the two horizontals on this Skate, then the schedule is found, where the distance between the curve and the horizontal direct line is equal to this embedding. For this thus found, the ordines read the value of ν or an iPo horizontal straight (on the above graphs marked with asterisks: ν \u003d 2.5º; i \u003d 0.05 \u003d 5% \u003d 50).

Example 1. Determine the angle of inclination and the slope of the area of \u200b\u200bthe area between horizontals on the scale of scale 1: 1000, if the mark is equal to 20mm, the height of the cross section of the relief H \u003d 1.0 m. On the ground the label will correspond to the length of the segment 20mm ∙ 1000 \u003d 20000mm \u003d 20m. According to formulas (15.1) and (15.2) TGν \u003d i \u003d 1:20 \u003d 0.05. Consequently, I \u003d 5% \u003d 50 ‰, and ν \u003d 2.9º.

Definition of points of locality. If the point is located on the horizontal, its mark is equal to the horizontal mark. When the point K (Fig. 20) is between horizontals with different heights, its mark H K is determined by interpolating (finding intermediate values \u200b\u200bof values) "on the eye" between these horizontals.

The interpolating is to determine the ratio of the proportionality of the distance d from the determined point to a smaller on the value of the horizontal n mg.k, the magnitude of the embedding A, i.e. Relations D / A, and multiplying it to the value of the height of the cross section h.

Example 2. Mark point to, located between horizontals with marks 150 and 152.5m (Fig. 20, a),

H k \u003d h M. g + (d / a) H \u003d 150 + 0.4 ∙ 2.5 \u003d 151m.

Fig. 20. Determination of points of points horizontally: A ... G - schemes with a cross section height H \u003d 2.5M

If the defined point is located between the horizontals of the same name - on the saddle (Fig. 20, b) or inside the closed horizontal - on a hill or a hollow (Fig.20, B), then its mark can be defined only approximately, believing that it is greater or Less than the height of this horizontal by 0.5h. For example, in the figure for the saddle, the mark of the Kravna point is 138.8m, for the hill - 128.8m, the hollow - 126,2m.

Conducting on the map of the line of a given limit slope on the line (Fig. 21). Between the points specified on the map A and B requirement to hold the shortest line so that no segment does not have a slope of more specified limit I PR.

Fig. 21. Scheme on the map of the specified limit slope on the map

The easiest task is solved by the scale of the bias. Taking a solution of the circulation on it with a solution, the imposition of a bias corresponding to it, flows sequentially 1 ... 7, all horizontally from point A to point. B. If the circulation solution is less than the distance between horizontals, then the line is carried out along the shortest direction. By connecting all the points, get a line with a specified limit bias. If there is no inclusion, then the injection and PR can be calculated according to the formula A PR \u003d H / (I PR M), where M is a denominator of a numerical scale map.

Fig. 22. Scheme of building a profile at a given direction: A - direction on the map; b - profile in direction

Building a terrain profile for the direction specified on the map. Consider building a profile on a specific example (Fig. 22). Let it be required to build a terrain profile over the AV line. For this, the AV line is transferred on the scale of the map on paper and noted on it points 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9 in which it crosses horizontally, as well as characteristic relief points (3, 6, 8). Line AV serves as the profile base. Points taken from cards postponed on perpendiculars (orders) to the bottom of the profile on the scale, 10 times larger than the horizontal scale. The obtained points are combined with a smooth line. Usually, the ordinates of the profile are reduced by the same value, i.e., they build a profile not from zero heights, but from the conventional horizon of UG (in fig. 22 for the conditional horizon, a height of 100m is taken).

With the help of the profile, you can set the mutual visibility between two points, for which they need to be connected to the straight line. If you build profiles from one point in several directions, you can apply to the map or plan of the area, not visible from this point. Such areas are called visibility fields.

Calculation of volumes (Fig. 23). Along the map with horizontals, you can calculate the volumes of the mountain and the basins depicted by the horizontal system closing within a small area. For this, the form of relief is divided into parts limited to two neighboring horizontals. Each such part can be approximately taken for a truncated cone, the volume of which V \u003d (1/2) (Si + Si + i) H C, where Si and Si + I - the area, limited on the map of the lower and upper horizontals, which are the bases of the truncated cone; H C is the height of the relief cross section; I \u003d 1, 2, ..., K is the current number of a truncated cone.

Square S is measured by a planimeter (mechanical or electronic).

Approximately the area of \u200b\u200bthe site can be determined by sharing it into many of the right mathematical figures (trapeats, triangles, etc.) and summing over the area. The volume V in the upper part is calculated as the volume of the cone, the base area of \u200b\u200bwhich is equal to S b and the height H - the difference in the top point t and horizontal, which limits the base of the cone:

Fig. 23. Volume definition scheme

V B \u003d (s b / 3) ∙ H

If the point T point is not signed on the card, then take H \u003d H C / 2. The total volume is calculated as the sum of the volume of individual parts:

V 1 + V 2 + ... + V k + V b,

where k is the number of parts.

Measuring areas on maps and plans is required to solve various engineering and economic tasks.

There are three ways to measure areas on maps: graphic, mechanical and analytical.

A graphical method can include a way to break the measured area to the simplest geometric shapes and a method based on the use of the palette.

In the first case, the area to be measured is separated into the simplest geometric shapes (Fig. 24.1), the area of \u200b\u200beach of which is calculated by simple geometric formulas and the total figure of the figure is defined as the sum of the areas of geometric private figures:

Fig. 24. Graphic methods for measuring the area of \u200b\u200bthe figure on the map or plan

In the second case, the area is covered with a pale, consisting of squares (see Fig. 24.2), each of which is the unit of measuring area. Square of incomplete figures are taken into account by eye. The pallet is made of transparent materials.

If the site is limited to broken lines, then its area is determined by the partition of geometric shapes. With curvilinear boundaries, the area is easier to determine by the palette.

The mechanical method is to calculate the area on the maps and plans with the help of a polar plan meter.

The polar plan meter consists of two levers of pole 1 and water-based 4, hinged connected to each other (Fig. 25, a).

Fig. 25. Polar Planometer: A - Appearance; B - counting on the counting mechanism

At the end of the pole lever there is a loader with a needle - Pole 2, the roasting lever at one end has a countable mechanism 5, on the other - the watering index 3. The bypass lever has a variable length. The counting mechanism (Fig. 25, b) consists of a dial 6, countable drum 7 and venier 8. One division on the dial corresponds to the turnover of the counting drum. The drum is divided into 100 divisions. The tenths of the small division of the drum are evaluated by Vernier. The full countdown on the planimeter is expressed by a four-digit number: the first digit is counted over the dial, the second and third - according to the counting drum, the fourth - on Vernier. In fig. 25, b counting on the countable mechanism is 3682.

Fig. 26. Analytical method of measuring area

By installing the wreck index at the starting point of the circuit of the measured figure, they take counting the counting step A, then the bypass index leads along the clockwise arrow along the contour until the starting point and take counting b. The difference of samples B - A represents the figure of the figure in the division of the planimeter. Each division of the plan meter corresponds to the area or terms of the area, called the price of dividing the plan meter R. Then the area of \u200b\u200bthe fraud is determined by the formula

S \u003d P (B - A)

To determine the pricing price of the plan meter, the figure is measured, the area of \u200b\u200bwhich is known or which can be determined with great accuracy. Such a figure on topographic plans and maps is a square formed by the coordinate grid lines. The price of dividing the plan meter p is calculated by the formula

P \u003d S Iz / (B - a),

where s Izv is a famous figure of the figure; (B - a) - the difference of samples in. The starting point when the shape is distributed with the famous area.

Analytical method consists in calculating the area according to the results of measurements of angles and lines on the ground. According to the measurement results, the coordinates of the vertices x, y are calculated. Polygon area 1-2-3-4 (Fig. 26) can be expressed through the area of \u200b\u200bthe trapez

P \u003d p 1'-1-2-2 '+ p 2'-2-3-3' - p 1'-1-4-4 '- p 4'-4-3-3' \u003d 0.5 ( (x 1 + x 2) (y 2 - y 1) + (x 2 + x 3) (y 3 - y 2) - (x 1 + x 4) (y 4 - y 1) - (x 4 + x 3) (y 3 - y 4)).

By producing transformations, we obtain two equivalent formulas to determine the doubled polygon area

2p \u003d x 1 (y 2 - y 4) + x 2 (y 3 - y 1) + x 3 (y 4 - y 2) + x 4 (y 1 - y 3);

P \u003d y 1 (x 4 - x 2) + y 2 (x 1 - x 3) + y 3 (x 2 - x 4) + y 4 (x 3 - x 1).

Calculations are easily performed on any microcalculator.

The accuracy of determining areas by an analytical way depends on the accuracy of the measured values.

7.I.the zind of the earth's surface is digital

The development of computing equipment and the emergence of automatic drawing devices (grapheatteners) led to the creation of automated systems for solving various engineering problems associated with the design and construction of structures. Some of these tasks are solved using topographic plans and cards. In this regard, there was a need to submit and storing information about the topography of the area in digital form, convenient to apply computers.

In the memory of the computer, the digital data on the area can be best presented in the form of coordinates x, y, n some set points of the earth's surface. Such a set of points with their coordinates forms a digital area of \u200b\u200bthe area (CMM).

All elements of the situation are given by the coordinates x and at points that determine the position of the objects and contours of the terrain. The digital model of relief characterizes topographic surface area. It is determined by a certain set of points with coordinates x, y, n chosen on the earth's surface so as to sufficiently display the nature of the relief.

Fig. 27. Scheme of the location of the digital model points in the characteristic places of relief and horizontally

Due to the variety of relief forms, it is quite difficult to describe it in digital form in detail, therefore, depending on the problem of the problem and the nature of the relief, various ways of compiling digital models are used. For example, the CMR may have a form of a table of the values \u200b\u200bof the coordinates x, y, n in the vertices of a certain mesh of squares or the right triangles, evenly located on the entire area of \u200b\u200bthe area. The distance between the vertices is selected depending on the form of the relief and the task is solved. The model can also be given in the form of a table of coordinates of points located in the characteristic places (ignitions) of the relief (watersheds, talves, etc.) or horizontally (Fig. 27). Using the values \u200b\u200bof the coordinate points of the digital model of the relief for a more detailed description of its description on a computer according to a special program, determine the height of any point of the area.

Literature

Basova I.A., Razumov O.S. Satellite methods in cadastral and land management work. - Tula, Publishing House Tulgu, 2007.

Bududenov N.A., Non-Khorekov P.A. Course of engineering geodesy. - M.: Publishing House MGUL, 2008.

Budoundov N.A., Schekova O.G. The engineering geodesy. - Yoshkar-Ola, Margtu, 2007.

Bulgakov N.P., Ryvina E.M., Fedotov G.A. Applied geodesy. - M.: Nedra, 2007.

GOST 22268-76 Geodesy. Terms and Definitions

Engineering geodesy in construction. / Ed. O.S. Razumova. - M.: Higher School, 2008.

The engineering geodesy. / Ed. prof. D.Sh.Mikheleva. - M.: Higher School, 2009.

Kuleshov D.A., Strelnikov G.E. Engineering geodesy for builders. - M.: Nedra, 2007.

Manukhov V.F., Tyuryakhin A.S. Engineering geodesy - Saransk, Mordovia State University, 2008.

Manukhov V.F., Tyuryakhina.S. Glossary of Terminals of satellite geodesy - Saransk, Mordovia State University, 2008.

1. Topographic maps and plans

1.1. Topographic maps and plans. General.

On topographic maps depict significant ground surfaces.

The spherical surface of the Earth cannot be portrayed on flat paper without distortion, therefore, in order to minimize distortions in the preparation of cards, cartographic projections are used. In our country, topographic maps are compiled in an equilibious cross-cylindrical projection Gauss - Kruger. In this projection, the surface of the earth's ellipsoid is designed to a plane in parts or in six perigendum or three-degree zones.

For this, the entire earth's ellipsoid shares the meridians into six-genera zones extending from the North to the South Pole. Total zones - sixty.

Zones are absolutely the same and therefore it is enough to calculate the design on the plane of only one zone. The zone is designing first to the surface of the cylinder, and then the latter deployed on the plane. The middle (axial) meridian zone is depicted on the plane of the straight line. Over the beginning of the coordinates in each zone, the intersection of images of the axial meridian and the equator is taken, form a rectangular coordinate grid.

Distortion of lengths of lines on topographic maps increases as they remove from axial meridian and their maximum values \u200b\u200bwill be on the edge of the zone. The magnitude of the line distortions in the Gaussian projection - Kruger is expressed by the formula

where div_adblock226 "\u003e

When tracing railways near the edge of the lines zone, impose amendments calculated by formula (1.1), it should be borne in mind that the length of the lines on the map are somewhat exaggerated and their values \u200b\u200bon the ellipsoid will be less, that is, the amendment should be entered with a minus sign.

The coordinate system in each zone is the same. To establish a zone to which a point with data coordinates belongs to the value of the order to the left, the zone number sign. The numbering of zones lead from the Greenwich Meridian to the East, that is, the first zone will be limited to meridians with breadth of 0 and 6. In order not to have negative ordents, the ordinates equal to 500 km are conventionally signed by the points of the axial meridian. Since the width of the zone for our latitude is about 600 km, then from the axial meridian to the east and the west, all points will have a positive ordinate.

Thus, the map is called a reduced, generalized and built according to certain mathematical laws, the image of significant areas of the surface of the earth on the plane. There are overview cards compiled in minor scale. To solve engineering tasks, large-scale cards are used, having scales - 1: 100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000, 1:10 000. We note that the scale of 1:25,000 is drawn up on the whole territory of the Russian Federation. Large cards The scale is composed of separate areas of the terrain, for example, on the territory of large cities, at home mineral deposits and other objects.

The topographic plan is a reduced and similar image on the plane of horizontal projections of contours and the form of terrain shafts without taking into account the ground sphericity. The objects and contours of the terrain are depicted by conventional icons, relief horizontals. The ratio of the length of the line segment on the plan to its horizontal paugulation on the ground is called scale ..gif "width \u003d" 48 "height \u003d" 48 src \u003d "\u003e. The scale is constant, and the image of the contour saves the similarity with their location on the ground, throughout Plan Square. Sometimes there are plans without an image of the terrain, such plans are called situational or contour.

The area for which you can make plans, that is, not to take into account the curvature of the earth, is 22 km https://pandia.ru/text/77/489/images/image006_81.gif "width \u003d" 15 "height \u003d" 12 "\u003e 500 km2.

Usually plans are based on 1: 500, 1: 1000, 1: 2000,1: 5000.

1.2. The scale of topographic plans and cards

Objective: Learn to build and apply graphics of various scales to solve problems associated with scales.

Since on the map (plan), all area lines are reduced by a certain number of times, therefore, to measure the distance on the map and establish their valid length, it is necessary to know the degree of their reduction - scale.

Using the scale, two main tasks are solved:

1) are postponed on a specified scale of segments on plans or maps, if horizontal buildings of these segments are known on the ground;

2) Determine the lengths of the lines on the ground for measured segments of the same lines on the plan (map).

Scale are divided into numerical and graphic. For convenience, the numerical scale is recorded in the form of a fraction, in the numerator of which they put a unit, and in the denominator the number M, indicating how many times the images of the lines are reduced, i.e. their horizontal pauses on the map:

Numerical scale - The value is relative, independent of the linear measures, therefore, if the numerical scale of the card is known, then the measurements can be measured in any linear measures. For example, if the scale of 1: 500 is measured in 1 cm, then the area will match the line of 500 cm or 5 m. It is accepted for lines in terms of expressing in centimeters, and on the ground - in meters.

The most common scale of the plans are 1: 500, 1: 1000, 1: 2000, 1: 5000. When using a numerical scale, it is necessary to calculate each time, which makes it difficult to use the scale. To avoid calculations, apply graphic scales.

Graphic scales are a graphic expression of a numerical scale and are divided into linear and transverse.

Linear scaleit is a straight line with division scale (Fig.1.1). To build a linear scale on a straight line, several times segments of a certain length, called base base. If, for example, a base base is 2 cm, and the numerical scale is taken 1: 2000, the base of the scale on the ground will correspond to the segment of 40 m (Fig. 1.1). We put at the end of the second segment - 40 m, at the end of the third - 80 m, at the end of the fourth - 120 m. The first base is separated by ten equal parts and through one shadow division for ease of use of a linear scale. Obviously, one tenth share of the foundation will correspond to the area of \u200b\u200b4 m.

Fig. 1.1. Linear graph

In order to determine the linear scale, which length of the line on the ground corresponds to a certain length of the line, taken on the plan, take the meter solution with a line with a plan, one leg of the meter is set at the end of one of the bases (right from zero) scale with such a calculation to another The feet of the circulation was necessarily located within the first base, which is divided into n \u003d 10 equal parts.

If the leg of the meter falls between strokes of small division, then some of this division is rated on the eye.

For example, in Fig. 1.1, the segment length marked with a meter is 108.4 m on a scale of 1: 2000. When laying on the plan of segments according to the known values \u200b\u200bof horizontal injections of the area, the task is solved similarly, but in reverse order. In order for the minor shares of the fission divisions of a linear scale to take eye, but to determine them with greater accuracy, a transverse scale is applied.

Cross scaleit is a system of horizontal parallel lines conducted after 2-3 mm and separated by vertical lines on equal segments, the value of which is equal to the base of the scale. Such a scale is engraved on rurs, called large-scale, as well as on the rules of some geodetic devices. Consider the construction of the so-called normal transverse scale suitable for any numerical scale.

On the horizontal direct postpone several segments (scale bases), 2 cm each. From the end points of the pending segments to be restored to a straight perpendicular. On two extreme perpendiculars, we will postpone 10 equal parts (2 mm) and the ends of these parts with a parallel base of the scale straight (Fig. 1.2). An extreme left base (its upper segment of the SD and Lower - 0B) is divided into 10 equal parts and carry out inclined lines (transversal) in the following order:

Point 0 (zero) on a segment of 0V connect with point 1 on the segment of the SD;

Point 1 on the segment of 0B connect with point 2 on the segment of the SD, etc., as shown in Fig. 1.2, a.

Consider a triangle OS1which in the enlarged form is depicted in Fig. 1.2, b. We define in it the magnitudes of parallel between the segments (A1C1, A2C2, A3C3, etc.). From the similarity of triangles OS1 and a1OS1 have

https://pandia.ru/text/77/489/images/image010_62.gif "width \u003d" 257 height \u003d 48 "Height \u003d" 48 "\u003e zoom base 0B.

In the same way, we find A2C2 \u003d 0.02, A3C3 \u003d 0.03, ..., A9S9 \u003d 0.09, ..., A9S9 \u003d 0.09 of the base of the scale of 0B, i.e. each segment differs from the adjacent scale by 0.01.

https://pandia.ru/text/77/489/images/image012_54.gif "width \u003d" 59 "height \u003d" 222 "\u003e

Fig. 1.2. Cross scale graph

This is a transverse scale property allows, without an eye assessment, measure and postpone the segments to 0.01 base base.

Thus, the magnitude of the smallest segment on the transverse graph (linear) scale is the price of the smallest division of scale graphics.

A transverse scale with a base of 2 cm, on which the segments of 0V and OS are divided into 10 equal parts, is called a normal-matted transverse scale. A normal transverse scale is convenient for measuring and postponing distances at any numerical scale. For example, with a numerical scale of 1: 5000, the base of the normal scale (2 cm) correspond to the terrain of 100 m, the tenth of it is 10 m, and the cell is 1 m.

When measuring the scale of scale 1:50 000, the base of a normal scale (2 cm) corresponds to the area of \u200b\u200b1000 m, the tenth share of it is 100 m, and the cell is 10 m, etc. As can be seen from the above examples, on the chart of normal transverse scale For a numerical scale of 1: 5000, you can measure the smallest segments up to 1 m, and for numerical scale 1:50 000 - up to 10 m, i.e. accuracy below 10 times. Consequently, the accuracy of the graph of the transverse (linear) scale is there is the price of the smallest division of the schedule on the scale of the plan or card. In addition, the person's eye cannot be distinguished without the use of optical devices very small divisions, and the circulation, no matter how thin is the toss of his needles, does not make it possible to completely install the legs of the legs. As a consequence, the accuracy of laying and measuring segments on the scale is limited by the limit that in the topography is taken equal to 0.1 mm and is called the limiting graphics accuracy.

The location distance corresponding to 0.1 mm on a map of a scale is called the maximum accuracy of this card or plan. In fact, the measurement error in the map distance is much more (there are reference errors on the scale, the error of the card itself, the deformation of the paper and other reasons). Practically we can assume that the error of measurement of distances on the map is approximately 5 to 7 times more limit values.

Consider the methods of applying the scale on the example of a scale of 1: 2000, where the basis of the schedule of a normal transverse scale 2 cm corresponds to the area of \u200b\u200b40 m, the tenth share of it is 4 m, and the cell is 0.4 m.

To determine the distance, the right leg of the meter is combined on the bottom line of the scale with a vertical line separating its base. In this case, the left leg of the meter should be on the lower line of the leftmost base. Now at the same time the legs of the meter raise up until the left is on any transversal. In this case, both legs of the meter must lie on one horizontal straight line. The desired distance is obtained by summing up the scale of scale, tenths and hundredths of scale, for example, the distance between the dots X. and Y. Consists of segments: 2 × 40 m + 6 × 4 m + 7 × 0.4 m \u003d 80 m + 24 m + 2.8 m \u003d 106.8 m (see Fig. 1.2, a).

Control questions:

1. What is called scale?

2. What are the scales?

3. What is a numerical scale?

4. What are the graphic scales?

5. What is the basis of scale schedule?

6. What is called a transverse scale accuracy?

7. What is called the accuracy of the map scale or plan?

8. How to determine the accuracy of the scale?

1.3. Conditional signs of plans and cards

Maps and plans must be accurate and expressive. The accuracy of the map and the plan depends on their scale, the accuracy of the geodesic instruments used in the shooting, methods of work and work performer.

The expressiveness of the card and the plan depends on the clear and clear image on them areas of the area. For such an image of the objects of the area in geodesy, special cartographic conditions are developed, characterized by simplicity and clarity, which is achieved by a combination of only elementary geometric forms, which to some extent resemble the appearance of the subject matter in reality. Simplicity of conditional signs ensures the ease of their memorization, which, in turn, makes it easier to read plans and cards.

Cartographic conventional signs (GOST 21667-76) It is customary to divide on the square, bore and linear.

Side marks are called conventional signs used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of the plan or card.

According to plan or map, you can determine using such a sign not only the location of the object, the subject, but also its dimensions.

If the object on this scale can not be expressed by a square mark due to its smallness, it is applied a borough-based conditional sign. Objects designated by such conditional signs occupy more space on the plan than it should be on the scale. Maintenance conventional signs have a great application on maps.

For the image on the maps and plans of linear objects, the lengths of which are expressed on the scale, use linear symptoms.

Such conditional signs on plans and cards are applied in full compliance with the scale and position of the horizontal projection of the object's length, but its width is shown somewhat exaggerated. Most of the signatures on the topographic plan or the map are placed in parallel bottom and upper frames. The inscriptions of rivers, streams, as well as mountain ranges make along their directions.

The clarity of topographic maps along with accuracy is the most important indicator. It is achieved by the use of appropriate conventional signs and inscriptions that complement their content and are a kind of conditional sign.

The inscriptions not only indicate the name, but also reflect the character (quality) of this object. Therefore, the inscriptions on the maps and plans are used to indicate their own names of geographic objects, designations of the object of the object and as explanatory inscriptions.

The selection of one or another font and the size of the inscription depend on the nature of the inspected object and scale of the card.

Control questions:

1. What is the meaning of establishing single conventional signs?

2. What are the types of conditional signs?

3. How can you use tables of conditional signs to read plans and cards?

1.4. Nomenclature of topographic maps

The nomenclature is called the separation system and the designations of sheets of topographic maps and plans.

Fig. 1.3. Nomenclature of sheets of map scale 1: 1 000 000

The nomenclature is based on the international divination of the sheet map sheet 1: 1 000 000 (Fig. 1.3). Map of scale 1: 1 000 000 is an image on the plane of a spherical trapezium formed by meridians and parallels. It has a length of longitude 6 °, by latitude of 4 °. To obtain these spherical trapeats, the entire earth's surface is divided into columns by meridians, located apart 6 ° in longitude, and on the ranks of parallels located 4 ° in latitude. The designation of the row and the column determines the spherical trapezium and the map of the scale of 1: 1 000 000.

Rows denote by capital letters of the Latin alphabet A., B., C., D., ..., ranging from the equator in directions to the north and south (Table 1).

Table 1

Row	Borders of a series of latitude	Row	Borders of a series of latitude	Row	Borders of a series of latitude

The columns are numbered by Arabic numbers 1, 2, ..., 60, ranging from the Meridian 180 ° in the direction from the west to the east. Each sheet map scale 1: 1000000 is assigned a nomenclature number consisting of the letter of the corresponding row and the column number, for example, M-42.

For example, a list of map scale 1: 1 000 000, on which Moscow is located (Fig. 1.3), has a nomenclature of N-37.

For cards scale 1: 500000 sheet scale 1: 100,000,000 meridian and parallel are divided by 4 sheets, denoting them with capital letters A, B, B, G. Nomenclature numbers of the card sheets are formed by adding the corresponding letter to the nomenclature number of 1: 100,000,000 (for example, M-42-g).

For a scale of 1: 200000 sheet scale 1: 1000000 divided by 36 sheets, numbered by their Roman numbers I, II, ..., XXXVI.

For Maps Scale 1: Dividing the scale of the scale 1: 1000000 via latitude and longitude of 12 parts, the boundaries of 144 sheets are obtained (Fig. 1.4, a), which are numbered 1, 2, ..., 144. The nomenclature of each sheet consists of the nomenclature Lisbage sheet 1: 1000000 and sheet numbers. The figure highlighted the M-37-87 sheet.

0 "STYLE \u003d" BORDER-COLLAPSE: COLLAPSE "\u003e

Nomenclature

Number of sheets

List sizes

(last

card sheet)

For plans of 1: 5000 and 1: 2000, two types of separactions are used - a trapezoidal, in which the framework of the plans serve parallels and meridians, and the rectangular, in which the frames are combined with the mesh lines of rectangular coordinates.

With a trapezoid divination of the boundaries of the sheets of scale 1: 5000, the scale of the scale of 1: 100000 on 256 parts (16'16) is obtained, which are numbered from 1 to 256. The nomenclature, for example Leaf No. 70, is written so M-37-87 (70) .

List of 1: 2000 sheets are obtained by dividing sheet scale 1: 5000 by 9 parts (3'3) and denoted by the letters of the Russian alphabet, for example, M-37-87 (70-C).

The rectangular separation is used for plans of settlements and for sections of less than 20 km2, as well as for 1: 1000 and 1: 500 scale plans.

When shooting a separate section, the plan can be prepared on a sheet of non-standard format.

An example of determining the nomenclature:

A task. Find the nomenclature of the sheet map scale 1:50 000 and the geographic coordinates of the corners of the trapezium frames, if it is known that the point K, located on this sheet of the card has coordinates:

latitude https://pandia.ru/text/77/489/images/image016_51.gif "width \u003d" 88 "height \u003d" 25 src \u003d "\u003e.

Decision. Using this in fig.1.4 by the international division of the scale of 1: 1 000 000 in the latitude and longitude of the point K, the card is found, within which it is located, and its nomenclature is written. For our case, it is located on a list of map of scale 1: 1 000 000 with nomenclature N - 44. Knowing that within this sheet map there are 144 sheets of scale 1: 100 000 (Fig.1.5) and considering the size of the framework, finding out geographic The coordinates of the point to its location within the list of map scale 1: 100 000.

We find that the point K is located on a sheet of 85 map scale 1: 100,000.

The nomenclature of this sheet will be n-on. It is required to find the location of the point to within the list of the map scale of 1:50,000. To do this, it is necessary to draw a sheet of the sheet N -Ris.1.6), showing it the location and designation of the sheet map sheet 1:50,000.

Fig. 1.5. Map 1: 1

Fig. 1.6. Map 1:

According to the geographical coordinates of the corners of the frame of the map of the map scale 1: 5000, we find the position of the point K. Point K is located in the northeast corner of the map of the scale of 1:50,000. The nomenclature of this sheet will be N -B.

Control questions:

1. What is the nomenclature of cards?

2. What are the scales of maps of pleasant in Russia?

3. What is the borders of the card sheet?

Educational and Methodical Center

Methodical development

To conduct classes on the initial training of rescuers

(t about p about r and f and me)

Topic number 2 "Topographic maps, schemes of terrain and plans"

Chelyabinsk

Training goals:Examine with listeners the scale of topographic cards,

give the basic concepts on the orientation of the map and top

graphic signs used on the map.

Me E S T O: Class.

In the r e m: 2 hours.

M E T O D: Practical lesson.

Curriculum and time calculation

Introductory part - 5 min

1st learning question: drawing up a plan and schemes.- 45 min

2nd study question: orientation on the map. -30 minutes

Ca to l a ch e n and e: - 10 min.

L and T E R A T U R A:

1. Textbook "Military Topography" for cadets of training units.

2. Handbook of the officer for military topography.

X o d z a n i t i:

Check for listeners,

Declare the topic, purpose, educational issues.

Introductory:

Rescue actions occurs on the ground or closely related to it. Acquired when studying the topography of knowledge, teachings and skills are of great practical importance in the activities of rescuers.

Knowledge of the methods of studying the terrain, skills in orientation and movement on it in various conditions, during the day, at night, with limited visibility contribute to the correct use of favorable properties of the area to achieve success, help to quickly and confidently navigate and withstand the specified direction when moving and implementing the maneuver. The ability to use the topographic map allows you to study in advance and evaluate the area, prepare the necessary data for marsham.

With the help of the card, the adoption of the most appropriate solution, setting the tasks of subordinates.

1st Tutorial: Topographic Card Classification, Local Schemes

step and plans. Conditional signs.

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP -the main graphic document on the terrain containing the exact, detailed and visual image of local items and relief. On topographic maps, local items are depicted by generally accepted conditional signs, and relief horizontals.

Topographic maps are designed for the operation of rescuers when preparing, organizing and conducting work. The terrain is studying and evaluated on them, the various calculated tasks are solved due to the determination of distances, angles and areas, heights, excess and mutual visibility of the areas of the terrain, steepness and types of rods, etc. On them is planned march and preparing

data for movement in azimuth.

Fullness, details and accuracy of the area of \u200b\u200bthe area on the map depend primarily from its scale.

Map scale Shows how many times the length of the line on the map is less than the length of the length on the ground. It is expressed in the form of two numbers relations. For example, the scale of 1:50 000 means that all area lines are depicted on the map with a decrease of 50,000 times, i.e. 1 cm on the map corresponds to 50,000 cm (or 50 m) on the ground.

The scale is indicated below the bottom side of the map of the map in digital terms (numerical scale) and in the form of a straight line (linear scale), on the segments of which they are signed by the corresponding distance to them on the ground. It also indicates the size of the scale - the distance in meters (or kilometers) on the ground, corresponding to one centimeter on the map. It is useful to remember the rule: if in the right part of the relationship to smoke the last two zero, the remaining number will show how many meters on the ground corresponds to 1 cm on the map, i.e. magnitude of scale.

When comparing several scales, the larger will be the one whose number in the right part of the ratio is less. Suppose that on the same site of the area there are maps of scale 1:25 000, 1:50 000 and 1: 100,000. Of these, the scale 1:25,000 will be the largest, and the scale is 1: 100,000 - the smallest.

For topographic cards installed a large-scale row.

Topographic plans.

Topographic plans can be created on major settlements and other objects that are important. They are a type of topographic maps and differ from them by the fact that they are published by individual sheets, the dimensions of which are determined by the boundaries of the depicted area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain (settlement, object). Plans have some features in the design.

Scale plans are most often drawn up 1:10 000 - 1:25,000, which make it possible to show the character of the object depicted and give detailed information about the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of local objects and details of the relief located both on the object itself and on the nearest approaches. to him. Accordingly, the site's name (object) is signed by the name of the plan, for example, the station plan is factory, the plan of the camps, etc.

For the convenience of use and greater clarity on the plans of cities, outstanding buildings are highlighted by special conditional signs and colors, the lines of urban transport (subway, tram) are shown. To facilitate the purpose of indicating the plan, the conditional numbering of quarters and some local items are given, and a brief reference-legend is placed on the fields or on the turnover of the plan, a list of outstanding buildings and an alphabetic indicator of the streets. The sample part of the city plan is given in Appendix 4.

Terrain scheme -the drawing on which the most characteristic local items are applied with approximate accuracy, as well as individual elements of the relief.

Local items are depicted on the diagram of topographic conventional signs, elevations and deepening (heights, hollows) - several closed horizontals, and the ridges and hollows are scraps of horizontals that pour the configuration of these form of relief. At the same time, in order to accelerate the work of drawing the conditional signs of some local items simplify.

Drafting the area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain of eye metering. To carry out the eye shooting, you need to have a compass, a tricky line, a pencil, a rubber band and a blank sheet of paper, fired on a rigid basis (piece of cardboard, plywood, etc.) In some cases, when the shooting need to spend quickly and does not require much care , It can be performed if there is only a pencil and paper.

Consider some of the techniques of eye shooting used in the preparation of location schemes.

Shot from one standing point It is used when the drawing requires a small area of \u200b\u200bthe area, located directly around the standing point or in the specified sector. In this case, the shooting is performed by the method of circular sight in such a sequence.

The standing point is applied to the sheet of paper so that the plot takes off on this sheet. For example, if we are standing in the center of the removable area, then the point of standing should be denoted in the center of the paper sheet, if

we stand in one of the corners or on the edge of the site, then the point on paper should be put in the appropriate corner or on the edge of the paper sheet. Then, orienting a sheet of paper relative to the removable area, fix it on any item (pnene, railing of the bridge, spray bar) and, without knocking down the position of the sheet, take surveys.

If you have to work, holding a sheet of paper in your hand, then first the north-south direction on it. To do this, playing a sheet of paper relative to the removable area, put the compass on it, lower the arrow brake and, when the arrow calms down, scorches the line parallel to the compass arrow.

In the future, it is followed that the direction of the Compass arrow accurately coincided with the Linteen North-South. When you need to focus the drawing anew, for example, after a break in the work, the compass is imposed on it so that the divisions of 0 degrees. (O) and 180 degrees. (Yu) coincided with the battered north-south direction, then turn the drawing to the port until the northern end of the compass arrows will not stand against the division of 0 degrees. (C). In this position, the drawing will be oriented, and you can continue to work on it.

In order to apply one or another item to the drawing, it is necessary after the orientation of the sheet to apply the lineup (pencil) designated on it and rotate it near the point until the direction of the line does not coincide with the direction on the subject. With this position of the line, the direct line from the point of standing along it, this line and will be the reference on which the object is applied to the scheme. So consistently put the line on all other items and wipe the directions for each of them.

Then determine the distances to the items and lay them in the appropriate directions from the standing point on the scale of the drawing or approximately, while maintaining the exemplary ratio of these distances in the drawing and on

Terrain. The location of items received in the directions of the point will indicate the location of items in the drawing. In places of points, the conditional signs of applied objects are drawn relative to which the remaining details of the area, which are directly near the standing point, as well as located between the printed benchmarks or near them. In the scheme of the area, individual trees are applied, bushes at the road, a plot of improved ground road, ruins, pits, etc.

Shot from several standing points It is performed when you need to show a relatively large area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain.

Local items in this case are applied to the drawing by serifs, a distinction of the distance, in the stem, the method of circular sight, in the method of perpendicular.

When preparing for shooting, a sheet of paper on which shooting will be made, secure on a solid basis (tablet). The compass is attached to the same basis so that the North-South line on the compass scale was approximately parallel to one of the sides of the tablet or sheet of paper.

For the speed and convenience of postponing distances measured by steps, it is necessary to make the scale of steps. Such a scale is built on a separate paper strip or on the field of that sheet on which the shooting is conducted.

Scale of steps is built so. Suppose that shooting is in scale

1:10 000, i.e. 1 cm in the drawing corresponds to 100 m on the ground. The magnitude of one pair of tenant steps is 1.5 m. Therefore, 100 pairs of steps are equal to 150 m on the ground or 1.5 cm in the drawing. A segment of 1.5 cm is delayed on a straight line three, four or more times. Against the second division, on the left sign the figure 0, and against subsequent divisions - figures 100, 200, 300, etc. Against the leftmost (first) division sign: 100 pairs of steps. In this way, the scale of steps, each large division of which

Corresponds to 100 pairs of steps. In order for distances to be put off with great precision, the extreme left segment is divided into 10 small divisions of 1.5 mm, each of which will be 10 pairs of steps.

Having such a scale, there is no need to translate the pairs of steps into the meters every time, it is enough to postpone the scale of the number of steam steps to get the scope of the shooting, which is applied to the drawing.

The shooting is carried out bypassing the section on the roads, the river bank, the edge of the forest, along the communication line, etc. The directions for which shooting is being conducted are called the running lines, and the points on which are determined and the directions of new running lines are determined - stations.

Image of local items on

Topographic maps

Types of conditional signs of topographic maps. Local items on topographic maps are depicted by conditional signs.

For the convenience of reading and memorizing, many conditional signs are drawn, resembling the species of local items depicted from above or side. For example, the conditional signs of factories, oil towers, separate trees, bridges in their form are similar to the appearance of listed local items.

The conventional signs depicting the same elements of the terrain on topographic maps of various scales are the same in their drawing and differ in only sizes.

The relief on topographic maps is depicted by horizontals, and some of its details (cliffs, ravines, wins, etc.) - appropriate notation.

The conventional signs are made to divide the three main groups: large-scale, most important and explanatory.

Scale Conditional signs depict those local items and details of the relief, which according to their size can be expressed in the scale of the map (lakes, forests, neighborhoods, large rivers, ravines, etc.).

The contours (external borders) of such objects (objects) are shown on the map with solid lines or dotted line in exact accordance with their valid outlines. Solid lines show the contours of lakes, wide rivers, ravines, binds of settlements, dotted line - forest contours, meadows, swamps. The area inside the circuit of such conditional signs on the map is usually covered by the paint of the corresponding color or filled with additional

Signs (Table 1, 4, and 5 applications 3).

Large-scale symbols allow you to determine the valid length on the map, the width and area of \u200b\u200bdepicted or objects. For example, if the width of the river on the map of the scale of 1:50 000 is 2 mm, then its valid width is equal to 100 m.

Maintenance The conventional signs are used for the image of such local objects and relief parts, which, due to the small size of the area they do, cannot be expressed on the map scale. Such local objects are mines, radio cells, wells, tower facilities, mounds, etc.

The exact position on the subject map depicted by a lean-based conditional sign is determined by the geometric center of the figure, the middle of the base of the sign, the vertex of the direct angle at the base of the sign, the geometric center of the lower figure.

The intermediate position between large-scale and enerone-based conditional signs occupy the conditional signs of roads, streams, promotions, water pipes, electrolytes and other linear local items, in which the length is expressed on the scale. Such conditional signs are usually called linear. Their accurate position on the map is determined by the longitudinal axis of the object.

Explanatoryconditional signs are used in conjunction with large-scale and ease, they serve for the additional characteristics of local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conditional forest sign shows the prevailing (see Figure) in it the tree breed, the arrow on the river indicates the direction of its flow, transverse touches on the conventional railway sign show the number of paths.

The maps are placed signatures of their own names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and digital designations. They allow us to obtain additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local items and relief. Letter explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conditional abbreviations (Appendix 5).

The image of the relief on topographic maps should give the opportunity to determine the map

Image of the dock of the total and private position on the Epur

Exceptional image in standard resolution, powerful zoom and convenient functions

Find the corresponding definition of a parallel, sequential, parallel-sequential type of movement of labor objects